{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T18:54:13Z","timestamp":1793040853149,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757030400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Vicerrector\u00eda de Investigaci\u00f3n y Doctorados de la Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n\u2014Fondo","award":["USS-FIN-25-APCS-41"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["USS-FIN-25-APCS-41"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04jrwm652","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The widespread production and poor management of plastic waste have led to the pervasive presence of microplastics (MPs) in environmental and biological systems. Among various polymers, polyethylene (PE) is the most widely produced plastic globally, primarily due to its use in single-use packaging. Its persistence in ecosystems and resistance to degradation processes result in the continuous formation of PE-derived MPs. These particles have been detected in human biological matrices, including blood, lungs, placenta, and even the brain, raising increasing concerns about their bioavailability and potential health effects. Once internalized, PE MPs can interact with cellular membranes, induce oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis, and interfere with epigenetic regulatory pathways. In vitro studies on epithelial, immune, and neuronal cells reveal concentration-dependent cytotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, membrane disruption, and activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, recent findings suggest that PE MPs can induce epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), senescence, and epigenetic dysregulation, including altered expression of miRNAs and DNA methyltransferases. These cellular changes highlight the potential role of MPs in disease development, especially in cardiovascular, metabolic, and possibly cancer-related conditions. Despite growing evidence, no standardized method currently exists for quantifying MPs in human samples, complicating comparisons across studies. Further, MPs can carry harmful additives and environmental contaminants such as bisphenols, phthalates, dioxins, and heavy metals, which enhance their toxicity. Global estimates indicate that humans ingest and inhale tens of thousands of MPs particles each year, yet long-term human research remains limited. Given these findings, it is crucial to expand research on PE MP toxicodynamics and to establish regulatory policies to reduce their release. Promoting alternative biodegradable materials and improved waste management practices will be vital in decreasing human exposure to MPs and minimizing potential health risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13090756","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T14:53:01Z","timestamp":1757083981000},"page":"756","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Polyethylene Microplastics and Human Cells: A Critical Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Sharin","family":"Valdivia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Biology Laboratory, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Sede Concepci\u00f3n, Campus Tres Pascualas, Concepci\u00f3n 4080871, Chile"},{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Biol\u00f3gicas y Qu\u00edmicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Sede Concepci\u00f3n, Campus Tres Pascualas, Concepci\u00f3n 4080871, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Camila","family":"Riquelme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Medicina, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Sede Concepci\u00f3n, Campus Tres Pascualas, Concepci\u00f3n 4080871, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Constanza","family":"Carrasco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Medicina, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Sede Concepci\u00f3n, Campus Tres Pascualas, Concepci\u00f3n 4080871, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paulina","family":"Weisser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Medicina, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Sede Concepci\u00f3n, Campus Tres Pascualas, Concepci\u00f3n 4080871, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1311-9492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carolina","family":"A\u00f1azco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutritional Biochemistry Laboratory, School of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Rehabilitation and Quality of Life Sciences, San Sebastian University, Valdivia 5091000, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9s","family":"Alarc\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Biology Laboratory, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Sede Concepci\u00f3n, Campus Tres Pascualas, Concepci\u00f3n 4080871, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8413-8028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebasti\u00e1n","family":"Alarc\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Biology Laboratory, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Sede Concepci\u00f3n, Campus Tres Pascualas, Concepci\u00f3n 4080871, Chile"},{"name":"Escuela de Medicina, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Sede Concepci\u00f3n, Campus Tres Pascualas, Concepci\u00f3n 4080871, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01438-6","article-title":"The global burden of cancer attributable to risk factors, 2010\u201319: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"400","author":"Tran","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-environ-112522-072642","article-title":"Plastics and the Environment","volume":"48","author":"Napper","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annu. 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