{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]],"date-time":"2025-10-17T00:11:18Z","timestamp":1760659878012,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760400000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Technologies R&D Program","award":["AB25069093"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AB25069093"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["21976043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21976043"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Guangxi Science and Technology Program","award":["AD25069074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AD25069074"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Low-carbon chemical fires pose significant hazards, and remote sensing of high-temperature gas emissions from these fires is a critical method for identifying and assessing their environmental impact. Analyzing the spectral characteristics of gases produced by low-carbon chemical pool fires and developing spectral radiation models can establish a foundation for remote pollution monitoring. However, such studies remain scarce. Using a custom-built high-temperature gas spectroscopy platform, this study extracts spectral features of gases emitted by low-carbon chemical pool fires. We investigate spectral interference mechanisms among combustion products and develop a high-precision spectral radiation model to support remote fire pollution monitoring. Experimental results reveal distinct spectral bands for key gases: CO2 peaks near 2.7 \u03bcm and 4.35 \u03bcm, SO2 at 4.05 \u03bcm, 7.5 \u03bcm, and 9.0 \u03bcm, NO at 5.5 \u03bcm, and NO2 at 3.6 \u03bcm and 6.3 \u03bcm. The proposed spectral radiation model accurately simulates the position and shape of spectral peaks. For carbon disulfide and acetonitrile combustion products, the model achieves prediction accuracies of 83.4\u201396.9% and 79.2\u201395.3%, respectively.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13100877","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T14:04:02Z","timestamp":1760537042000},"page":"877","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Investigating the Spectral Characteristics of High-Temperature Gases in Low-Carbon Chemical Pool Fires and Developing a Spectral Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-0671-611X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gengfeng","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control Theory and Technology, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541006, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhili","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yaquan","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qiang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9349-6265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lv","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2022.07.007","article-title":"Fire and Explosion Economic Losses (FEEL) Index: A new approach for quantifying economic damages due to accidents in hydrocarbon storage sites","volume":"165","author":"Santana","year":"2022","journal-title":"Process. Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2022.104827","article-title":"Safety risk assessment of chemical production process based on local and global objectives","volume":"79","author":"Shao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Loss Prev. Process. Ind."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.115913","article-title":"Global trends of waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies in carbon neutral perspective: Bibliometric analysis","volume":"270","author":"Cui","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"101279","article-title":"Sentinel 2 based burn severity mapping and assessing post-fire impacts on forests and buildings in the Mizoram, a north-eastern Himalayan region","volume":"36","author":"Gupta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Remote. Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2006.08.057","article-title":"Large hydrocarbon fuel pool fires: Physical characteristics and thermal emission variations with height","volume":"140","author":"Raj","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1021\/je000236i","article-title":"The NIST Chemistry WebBook: A Chemical Data Resource on the Internet","volume":"46","author":"Linstrom","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Chem. Eng. Data"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Saito, T.H.K., and Yanagisawa, M. (2025, October 08). Spectral Database for Organic Compounds (SDBS). Available online: https:\/\/sdbs.db.aist.go.jp\/."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2019.106676","article-title":"Evaluation of different parameterizations of temperature dependences of the line-shape parameters based on ab initio calculations: Case study for the HITRAN database","volume":"240","author":"Stolarczyk","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2019.04.031","article-title":"The impact of various HITRAN molecular spectroscopic databases on infrared radiative transfer simulation","volume":"234","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2020.107283","article-title":"Revising the line-shape parameters for air- and self-broadened CO2 lines toward a sub-percent accuracy level","volume":"256","author":"Hashemi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2020.107275","article-title":"Addition of the line list for carbon disulfide to the HITRAN database: Line positions, intensities, and half-widths of the 12C32S2, 32S12C34S, 32S12C33S, and 13C32S2 isotopologues","volume":"258","author":"Karlovets","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jms.2021.111510","article-title":"The 2020 edition of the GEISA spectroscopic database","volume":"380","author":"Delahaye","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2021.107949","article-title":"The HITRAN2020 molecular spectroscopic database","volume":"277","author":"Gordon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2021.107666","article-title":"An experimentally-accurate and complete room-temperature infrared HCN line-list for the HITRAN database","volume":"270","author":"Mellau","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jms.2020.111394","article-title":"The new nitrogen dioxide (NO2) linelist in the GEISA database and first identification of the \u03bd1+2\u03bd3-\u03bd3 band of 14N16O2","volume":"376","author":"Perrin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2015.01.016","article-title":"Validation of HITEMP-2010 for carbon dioxide and water vapour at high temperatures and atmospheric pressures in 450\u20137600 cm\u22121 spectral range","volume":"157","author":"Alberti","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2019.04.040","article-title":"Spectroscopic line parameters of NO, NO2, and N2O for the HITEMP database","volume":"232","author":"Hargreaves","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jms.2023.111748","article-title":"AI-3000K Infrared line list for hot CO2","volume":"392","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jms.2024.111890","article-title":"High-temperature line strength and line shape parameters measurements of Ar- and N2-perturbed CO2 lines near 4.18 \u00b5m in a shock tube","volume":"400","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phillips, W.J., Plemmons, D.H., and Galyen, N.A. (2025, October 08). HITRAN\/HITEMP Spectral Databases and Uncertainty Propagation by Means of Monte Carlo Simulation with Ap-Plication to Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Diagnostics. Available online: https:\/\/itea.org\/images\/pdf\/conferences\/2011-Test-Instrumentation-presentations\/ITEA%20Monte%20Carlo-TDLAS.pdf?.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA538244"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proci.2006.08.049","article-title":"Effects of fuel absorption on radiative heat transfer in methanol pool fires","volume":"31","author":"Wakatsuki","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Combust. Inst."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14297","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.8b02087","article-title":"Experimental Study of a Liquefied Natural Gas Pool Fire on Land in the Field","volume":"57","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, Z., Xiao-Jun, L., and Lei, H. (2020, January 23\u201325). Video Image Fire Recognition Based on Color Space and Moving Object Detection. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Computer Engineering (ICAICE), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAICE51518.2020.00077"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2021.103364","article-title":"Real-time fire detection system based on dynamic time warping of multichannel sensor networks","volume":"123","author":"Baek","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2021.103443","article-title":"Brain-STORM: A deep learning model for computationally fast transient high-rise fire simulations","volume":"125","author":"Buffington","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compfluid.2022.105567","article-title":"Using a flamelet generated manifold method in transported probability density function modeling of soot formation and thermal radiation","volume":"245","author":"Stoellinger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2024.133210","article-title":"Fire dynamics, fire generated pollutants, and acute health implications: A scaling law analysis of heavy-fuel-oil pool fires","volume":"381","author":"Tsai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cja.2024.09.023","article-title":"Soot volume fraction measurements in aero-engine model combustor outlet using two-color laser-induced incandescence","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chin. J. Aeronaut."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"3297","article-title":"Research on Heat Transfer Characteristics in Oil Pool Fire Based on Spectral Analysis","volume":"36","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1415479","article-title":"Using GOCI to detect the diffusion of pollution after the TianJin harbour explosion","volume":"39","author":"Jiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2014.11.004","article-title":"Thermal radiation from vapour cloud explosions","volume":"94","author":"Hadjipanayis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Process. Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2024.109177","article-title":"Detailed radiation modeling of two flames relevant to fire simulation using Photon Monte Carlo\u2014Line by Line radiation model","volume":"329","author":"Paul","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, C.S.-C., Jin, F., Trivedi, S., Hommerich, U., Nemes, L., and Samuels, A.C. (2023). Long-wave infrared laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy of complex gas molecules in the vicinity of a laser-induced plasma. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc., 294.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4347273"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2023.104841","article-title":"Experimental and numerical study on the combustion and infrared radiation characteristics of Mg\/PTFE\/Viton pyrotechnic compositions","volume":"133","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2019.102847","article-title":"Spectral radiation emitted by kerosene pool fires","volume":"108","author":"Parent","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103673","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2022.103673","article-title":"Flame detection by heat from the infrared spectrum: Optimization and sensitivity analysis","volume":"133","author":"Bordbar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2006.10.029","article-title":"LNG fires: A review of experimental results, models and hazard prediction challenges","volume":"140","author":"Raj","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ress.2010.02.005","article-title":"Risk analysis and risk acceptance criteria in the planning processes of hazardous facilities\u2014A case of an LNG plant in an urban area","volume":"95","author":"Vinnem","year":"2010","journal-title":"Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2011.03.001","article-title":"Underwater LNG release test findings: Experimental data and model results","volume":"24","author":"Qi","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Loss Prev. Process. Ind."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cja.2017.04.003","article-title":"IR radiation characteristics of rocket exhaust plumes under varying motor operating conditions","volume":"30","author":"Niu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chin. J. Aeronaut."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"53","article-title":"Study on Radiation Characteristics of Multi-Nozzle Liquid Rocket Engine Plumes","volume":"4","author":"Qiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Missiles Space Veh."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2023.112766","article-title":"Hydrogen sulfide measurement of combustion gaseous product using ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy","volume":"214","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2024.105556","article-title":"Simultaneous measurement of temperature and C2H4 concentration in hydrocarbon flames using interference-immune differential absorption spectroscopy at 3.3 \u03bcm","volume":"142","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2024.133767","article-title":"Radiative characteristics detection and generation mechanism analysis of soot and PAHs during the combustion process of raw coal and tar coal","volume":"382","author":"Chang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruan, S., Gao, G., Yang, Y., Yang, H., and Cai, T. (2025). Measurement and validation of high-temperature CO spectral line parameters near 2.3 \u03bcm using TDLAS for combustion diagnostics. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc., 329.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2024.125577"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2015). Radiation Thermometers. Standard No. JJG 856-2015."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2019.02.034","article-title":"Update of the HITRAN collision-induced absorption section","volume":"328","author":"Karman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cnsns.2023.107812","article-title":"Steady-state solutions of the Whittaker\u2013Hill equation of fractional order","volume":"131","year":"2024","journal-title":"Commun. Nonlinear Sci. Numer. Simul."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2020.08.002","article-title":"Experimental investigation of small-scale CS2 (carbon disulphide) pool fires","volume":"145","author":"Mishra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Process. Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proci.2020.07.043","article-title":"Experimental and kinetic modeling study of oxidation of acetonitrile","volume":"38","author":"Alzueta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Combust. Inst."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113846","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2023.113846","article-title":"Spectral band-shifting of multispectral remote-sensing reflectance products: Insights for matchup and cross-mission consistency assessments","volume":"299","author":"Salem","year":"2023","journal-title":"Remote. Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"672","article-title":"Construction of CS2 Combustion Flame Spectral Radiation Model and Inversion of Characteristic Pollution Product Concentration","volume":"42","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Spectrosc. Spectr. Anal."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/10\/877\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T04:57:10Z","timestamp":1760590630000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/10\/877"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics13100877"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics13100877","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2305-6304"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]}}}