{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T05:03:00Z","timestamp":1791262980822,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]],"date-time":"2025-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763683200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002842","name":"Chiang Mai University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["535\/2568"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["535\/2568"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002842","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Indoor exposure to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) presents a global health concern, yet comprehensive seasonal assessments in Thailand remain limited, particularly during air pollution episodes. We assessed 15 PTEs in household dust collected across eight provinces of upper northern Thailand (UNT) during the haze and non-haze seasons to evaluate contamination levels, identify sources, and assess health risks. Five elements (Cr, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn) showed significantly higher concentrations during the haze season (p &lt; 0.05), accompanied by corresponding increases in contamination indices and more diverse pollution sources being identified compared to the non-haze season, with Sb showing the highest enrichment degree (EF = 117.8). Source identification revealed potential enrichment from mixed anthropogenic sources, natural soil, industrial activities, agricultural inputs, and biomass burning. Health risk assessment showed that children faced unacceptable non-carcinogenic risks (HI = 2.51), increasing to 2.79 during the haze season, exceeding safe thresholds. Both adults and children experienced unacceptable carcinogenic risks from chromium exposure, particularly through inhalation during haze episodes. Total lifetime cancer risks increased from 1.20 \u00d7 10\u22124 to 1.74 \u00d7 10\u22124 for children and from 4.02 \u00d7 10\u22124 to 6.06 \u00d7 10\u22124 for adults during the haze season. These findings underscore the critical need for integrated pollution control strategies addressing biomass burning emissions to reduce indoor dust contamination and protect public health in biomass-burning-impacted regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13121008","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]],"date-time":"2025-11-21T15:33:06Z","timestamp":1763739186000},"page":"1008","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Contamination and Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements in Household Dust Across the Haze Season in Upper Northern Thailand"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2262-0641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kawinwut","family":"Somsunun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Environment and Health Research Group, Research Institute for Health Sciences (RIHES), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"},{"name":"Office of Research Administration, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7856-4987","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teetawat","family":"Santijitpakdee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environment and Health Research Group, Research Institute for Health Sciences (RIHES), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kanyapak","family":"Kohsuwan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environment and Health Research Group, Research Institute for Health Sciences (RIHES), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natwasan","family":"Jeytawan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environment and Health Research Group, Research Institute for Health Sciences (RIHES), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sukrit","family":"Kirtsaeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Northern Meteorological Center, Meteorological Department, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5174-6668","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dan","family":"Norb\u00e4ck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7132-3235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tippawan","family":"Prapamontol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environment and Health Research Group, Research Institute for Health Sciences (RIHES), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cholowsky, N.L., Chen, M.J., Selouani, G., Pett, S.C., Pearson, D.D., Danforth, J.M., Fenton, S., Rydz, E., Diteljan, M.J., and Peters, C.E. (2023). Consequences of changing Canadian activity patterns since the COVID-19 pandemic include increased residential radon gas exposure for younger people. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-32416-8"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"US EPA (2025, May 23). The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/indoor-air-quality-iaq\/inside-story-guide-indoor-air-quality."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Liu, X., Meng, Q., Li, B., and Caneparo, L. (2022). Physical environment research of the family ward for a healthy residential environment. Front. Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.1015718"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, August 28). Household Air Pollution and Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/household-air-pollution-and-health."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c04494","article-title":"International Analysis of Sources and Human Health Risk Associated with Trace Metal Contaminants in Residential Indoor Dust","volume":"56","author":"Isley","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.138142","article-title":"Assessment of sources, environmental, ecological, and health risks of potentially toxic elements in urban dust of Moscow megacity, Russia","volume":"321","author":"Ivaneev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rasmussen, P.E., Kubwabo, C., Gardner, H.D., Levesque, C., and Beauchemin, S. (2022). Relationships between House Characteristics and Exposures to Metal(loid)s and Synthetic Organic Contaminants Evaluated Using Settled Indoor Dust. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191610329"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.11.003","article-title":"Canadian House Dust Study: Population-based concentrations, loads and loading rates of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc inside urban homes","volume":"443","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.137595","article-title":"Distribution, sources and health risks of heavy metals in indoor dust across China","volume":"313","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L., Pu, Z., Li, M., and Sundell, J. (2015). Characterizing the Indoor-Outdoor Relationship of Fine Particulate Matter in Non-Heating Season for Urban Residences in Beijing. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138559"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ro\u017eanec, J., Gali\u010di\u010d, A., and Kukec, A. (2024). The Impact of Outdoor Environmental Factors on Indoor Air Quality in Education Settings: A Systematic Review. Atmosphere, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos15121403"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2025.e42261","article-title":"Seasonal analysis of indoor and outdoor ratios of PM2.5 and PM10 in Bangkok and Chiang Mai: A comparative study of haze and non-haze episodes","volume":"11","author":"Kliengchuay","year":"2025","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2018.07.044","article-title":"Contribution of metals in resuspended dust to indoor and personal inhalation exposures: Relationships between PM10 and settled dust","volume":"143","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-019-7495-z","article-title":"Monitoring of arsenic, mercury and organic pesticides in particulate matter, ambient air and settled dust in natural history collections taking the example of the Museum f\u00fcr Naturkunde, Berlin","volume":"191","author":"Deering","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Pollution Control Department (PCD) (2023). Thailand\u2019s Air Quality and Situation Reports (in Thai), Pollution Control Department. Available online: http:\/\/air4thai.com\/tagoV2\/tago_file\/books\/book_file\/eef68f0fe6195accf1e101ff3c204fe0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2025.04.040","article-title":"Unveiling the origins of Northern Thailand\u2019s haze: Comprehensive chemical characterization and source apportionment of PM2.5 using targeted molecular markers","volume":"159","author":"Saksakulkrai","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2022.09.026","article-title":"Contrasting compositions of PM2.5 in Northern Thailand during La Ni\u00f1a (2017) and El Ni\u00f1o (2019) years","volume":"135","author":"Kraisitnitikul","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corsini, E., Marinovich, M., and Vecchi, R. (2019). Ultrafine Particles from Residential Biomass Combustion: A Review on Experimental Data and Toxicological Response. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20204992"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Somsunun, K., Prapamontol, T., Pothirat, C., Liwsrisakun, C., Pongnikorn, D., Fongmoon, D., Chantara, S., Wongpoomchai, R., Naksen, W., and Autsavapromporn, N. (2022). Estimation of lung cancer deaths attributable to indoor radon exposure in upper northern Thailand. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-09122-y"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Somsunun, K., Prapamontol, T., Kuanpan, T., Santijitpakdee, T., Kohsuwan, K., Jeytawan, N., and Thongjan, N. (2023). Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Indoor Household Dust in Urban and Rural Areas of Chiang Mai and Lamphun Provinces, Thailand. Toxics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11121018"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bootdee, S., Sillapapiromsuk, S., and Kawichai, S. (2025). Trace Elements in Indoor Dust Exposure from Child Development Centers and Health Risk Assessment in Haze and Industrial Areas, Thailand. Toxics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13070547"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"EPA, US (2025, July 01). US EPA Regional Screening Levels (RSL) Calculator, Available online: https:\/\/epa-prgs.ornl.gov\/cgi-bin\/chemicals\/csl_search."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"US EPA (2011). Exposure Factors Handbook 2011 Edition (Final Report), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1039\/b000742k","article-title":"Multi-element analysis of soil and sediment by ICP-MS after a microwave assisted digestion method","volume":"15","author":"Falciani","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Anal. At. Spectrom."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.01.055","article-title":"Pollution and health risk of potentially toxic metals in urban road dust in Nanjing, a mega-city of China","volume":"476\u2013477","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"673","article-title":"The Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution","volume":"122","author":"Taylor","year":"1985","journal-title":"Geol. Mag."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1029\/2000GC000109","article-title":"Relationships between the trace element composition of sedimentary rocks and upper continental crust","volume":"2","author":"McLennan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosystems"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4172\/2381-8719.1000237","article-title":"The Importance of Enrichment Factor (EF) and Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) to Evaluate the Soil Contamination","volume":"5","author":"Barbieri","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geol. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.02.011","article-title":"Health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in soils along the Central Elbe River, Germany","volume":"126","author":"Rinklebe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2023.111161","article-title":"Assessment of heavy metal contamination of agricultural soils in Poland using contamination indicators","volume":"156","author":"Tomczyk","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.108708","article-title":"Sources and human health risks associated with potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in urban dust: A global perspective","volume":"187","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e14841","article-title":"Environmental geochemical baseline determination and pollution assessment of heavy metals in farmland soil of typical coal-based cities: A case study of Suzhou City in Anhui Province, China","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105125","article-title":"Human exposure and risk associated with trace element concentrations in indoor dust from Australian homes","volume":"133","author":"Doyi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2005.03.026","article-title":"Geochemistry and risk assessment of street dust in Luanda, Angola: A tropical urban environment","volume":"39","year":"2005","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"057008","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP2998","article-title":"Conditional Toxicity Value (CTV) Predictor: An In Silico Approach for Generating Quantitative Risk Estimates for Chemicals","volume":"126","author":"Wignall","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) (2023, April 20). Technical Support Document for Cancer Potency Factors 2009, Available online: https:\/\/oehha.ca.gov\/air\/crnr\/technical-support-document-cancer-potency-factors-2009."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.04.046","article-title":"Pollution characteristics, sources, and health risk assessment of human exposure to Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb pollution in urban street dust across China between 2009 and 2018","volume":"128","author":"Hou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2025.e42696","article-title":"Recent advances in the clinical management of intoxication by five heavy metals: Mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium and arsenic","volume":"11","author":"Etemad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.12691\/ajams-9-1-2","article-title":"Factor Analysis as a Tool for Survey Analysis","volume":"9","author":"Shrestha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Appl. Math. Stat."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2014.03.003","article-title":"Lead and other elements in house dust of Japanese residences\u2014Source of lead and health risks due to metal exposure","volume":"189","author":"Yoshinaga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.117867","article-title":"Sources and composition of metals in indoor house dust in a mid-size Canadian city","volume":"289","author":"Dingle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.149430","article-title":"Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and the multi-element profile of house dust in Croatia: Indoor sources, influencing factors of their accumulation and health risk assessment for humans","volume":"800","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.141438","article-title":"Agrochemical treatments as a source of heavy metals and rare earth elements in agricultural soils and bioaccumulation in ground beetles","volume":"749","author":"Naccarato","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"20","article-title":"Contamination assessment of heavy metals in dust deposited on residential building walls in agricultural areas of Sukhothai","volume":"13","author":"Srithawirat","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2701","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-015-4291-0","article-title":"Concentration of selected heavy metals in the surface dust of residential buildings in Phitsanulok, Thailand","volume":"74","author":"Srithawirat","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuntawee, C., Tantrakarnapa, K., Limpanont, Y., Lawpoolsri, S., Phetrak, A., Mingkhwan, R., and Worakhunpiset, S. (2020). Exposure to Heavy Metals in Electronic Waste Recycling in Thailand. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17092996"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"National Environment Board, and Pollution Control Department (2021). Notification of the National Environment Board on Soil Quality Standards for Residential Areas, B.E. 2564 (2021). R. Thai Gov. Gaz. 2021, 138 (Special Section 38a), 1\u20134."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geodrs.2017.08.005","article-title":"Heavy metal and metalloid concentrations in soils under pasture of southern New Zealand","volume":"11","author":"Martin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geoderma Reg."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.10106","article-title":"Arsenic, lead, and other trace elements in soils contaminated with pesticide residues at the Hanford site (USA)","volume":"18","author":"Yokel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2010.07.035","article-title":"Hexavalent chromium in house dust\u2014A comparison between an area with historic contamination from chromate production and background locations","volume":"408","author":"Stern","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-017-3459-5","article-title":"Selective Separation of Chromium Species from Soils by Single-Step Extraction Methods: A Critical Appraisal","volume":"228","author":"Gontarska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Huang, D., Wu, J., Zhu, Q., and Zhu, H. (2018). Horizontal and Vertical Distributions of Chromium in a Chromate Production District of South Central China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15040571"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2013.11.007","article-title":"Assessment of metals pollution and health risk in dust from nursery schools in Xi\u2019an, China","volume":"128","author":"Lu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.134864","article-title":"Potential ecological and health risks of heavy metals for indoor and corresponding outdoor dust in Hefei, Central China","volume":"302","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.11.144","article-title":"Characteristics and health risk assessment of heavy metals exposure via household dust from urban area in Chengdu, China","volume":"619\u2013620","author":"Cheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7718","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-22700-x","article-title":"Assessment of house dust trace elements and human exposure in Ankara, Turkey","volume":"30","author":"Gul","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2009.03.021","article-title":"Identifying natural and anthropogenic sources of metals in urban and rural soils using GIS-based data, PCA, and spatial interpolation","volume":"157","author":"Davis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.143126","article-title":"Characteristics, source apportionment and health risk assessment of heavy metals exposure via household dust from six cities in China","volume":"762","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142367","article-title":"Heavy metals in indoor dust: Spatial distribution, influencing factors, and potential health risks","volume":"755","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mar\u00edn-Sanleandro, P., Delgado-Iniesta, M.J., S\u00e1enz-Segovia, A.F., and S\u00e1nchez-Navarro, A. (2024). Spatial Identification and Hotspots of Ecological Risk from Heavy Metals in Urban Dust in the City of Cartagena, SE Spain. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202312.0146.v1"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2025.e42769","article-title":"Health risk assessments of heavy metals in dust samples collected from classrooms in Ilorin, Nigeria and its impact on public health","volume":"11","author":"Okoro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230165","DOI":"10.4209\/aaqr.230165","article-title":"Characteristics and Health Risks of PM2.5-bound Metals in a Central City of Northern China: A One-year Observation Study","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aerosol Air Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envc.2025.101092","article-title":"The PM2.5-bound metals in the metropolitan area of Bangkok, Thailand: Temporal trends, sources, and human health challenges","volume":"18","author":"Ahmad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Chall."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.114655","article-title":"Health risk-oriented source apportionment of PM2.5-associated trace metals","volume":"262","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1021\/acsearthspacechem.0c00140","article-title":"Metal Concentrations and Source Apportionment of PM2.5 in Chiang Rai and Bangkok, Thailand during a Biomass Burning Season","volume":"4","author":"Kayee","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Earth Space Chem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17175","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-08297-z","article-title":"Heavy metal contents of selected commercially available oil-based house paints intended for residential use in Ethiopia","volume":"27","author":"Megertu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2016.05.009","article-title":"Inhalation cancer risk assessment of cobalt metal","volume":"79","author":"Suh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9082","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-6045-2","article-title":"Concentrations and health risk assessment of metal(loid)s in indoor dust from two typical cities of China","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2016.02.006","article-title":"Global-scale patterns in anthropogenic Pb contamination reconstructed from natural archives","volume":"213","author":"Marx","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3440","DOI":"10.1039\/D5EM00340G","article-title":"Interplay between oxidative potential and health risk of PM2.5-bound metals at a site of the Indo-Gangetic Plain\u2014Exploring the influence of biomass burning","volume":"27","author":"Agarwal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2788","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b05120","article-title":"The Oxidative Potential of Personal and Household PM2.5 in a Rural Setting in Southwestern China","volume":"53","author":"Brehmer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105917","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2020.105917","article-title":"Optimization of operational ICP OES parameters and application to PM10 monitoring associated to sugarcane burning","volume":"163","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stamatelopoulou, A., Dasopoulou, M., Bairachtari, K., Karavoltsos, S., Sakellari, A., and Maggos, T. (2021). Contamination and Potential Risk Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Heavy Metals in House Settled Dust Collected from Residences of Young Children. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11041479"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.114218","article-title":"Investigating arsenic impact of ACC treated timbers in compost production (A case study in Christchurch, New Zealand)","volume":"262","author":"Safa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.113262","article-title":"Metals leaching from common residential and commercial roofing materials across four years of weathering and implications for environmental loading","volume":"255","author":"McIntyre","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4257","DOI":"10.15244\/pjoes\/179919","article-title":"Multivariate Analysis for Characterization of Air Pollution Sources: Part 1 Prior Data Screening and Underlying Assumptions","volume":"33","author":"Mohammed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pol. J. Environ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11815","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-31751-7","article-title":"Source identification and health risk assessment of PM2.5 in urban districts of Hanoi using PCA\/APCS and UNMIX","volume":"31","author":"Bui","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1438","DOI":"10.1080\/10962247.2019.1668874","article-title":"Characterization and health risk assessment of indoor dust in biomass and LPG-based households of rural Telangana, India","volume":"69","author":"Yaparla","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.118551","article-title":"Source identification of pollution and health risks to metals in household indoor and outdoor dust: A cross-sectional study in a typical mining town, China","volume":"293","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13210","DOI":"10.1021\/es404751a","article-title":"Heavy Metals in Atmospheric Particulate Matter: A Comprehensive Understanding Is Needed for Monitoring and Risk Mitigation","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, X.Y., Lye, T.F., and Tay, J.H. (2024). Metal Contamination in Household Dust and Their Health Risk Assessment: A Study in Two Malaysian Cities. Appl. Environ. Res., 46.","DOI":"10.35762\/AER.2024032"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Min, G., Kim, D., Shin, J., Choe, Y., Lee, S., Lee, J., Choi, K., Sung, K., and Yang, W. (2025). Health risk assessment and source tracking of heavy metal exposure from indoor settled dust in an environmentally vulnerable area of the Republic of Korea. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-23211-8"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.148154","article-title":"Assessment of dust trace elements in an e-waste recycling area and related children\u2019s health risks","volume":"791","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"100807","article-title":"Diurnal health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in PM2.5 for children and adults in upper Southeast Asia during the smoke haze period","volume":"19","author":"Janta","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.29024\/aogh.2301","article-title":"Children\u2019s Environmental Health in Thailand: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"84","author":"Sinitkul","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e14261","article-title":"Airborne particulate matter from biomass burning in Thailand: Recent issues, challenges, and options","volume":"9","author":"Suriyawong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/12\/1008\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T14:00:19Z","timestamp":1765288819000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/12\/1008"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]]},"references-count":86,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics13121008"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics13121008","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]]}}}