{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T06:45:44Z","timestamp":1780728344393,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768348800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Key R&D Projects of Shandong Province","award":["2019GNC106078"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019GNC106078"]}]},{"name":"Funds of Shandong \u201cDouble Tops\u201d Program","award":["2025-539677"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025-539677"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Microplastics (MPs) and antibiotics have emerged as contaminants of global concern, posing potential threats to ecosystem security and organismal health. To investigate the individual and combined toxicity of microplastics (PS-MPs) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX), we conducted a 120 h acute exposure experiment using embryo\u2013larval zebrafish as a toxicological model. Our findings demonstrate that both PS-MPs and SMX can induce neurodevelopmental toxicity in embryo\u2013larval zebrafish during embryonic development. Notably, PS-MPs and SMX exerted a significant synergistic effect. PS-MPs 1 \u00b5m in diameter were restricted to the chorion surface of pre-hatching zebrafish, whereas post-hatching, PS-MPs accumulated mainly in the gut and gills, with accumulation levels increasing progressively with exposure duration. Individual exposure to PS-MPs or SMX reduced spontaneous locomotion, decreased heart rate, and shortened body length in embryo\u2013larval zebrafish. In addition to exacerbating these effects, coexposure further increased the incidence of malformations such as pericardial effusion and spinal curvature. PS-MPs and SMX significantly decreased the levels of dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), and \u03b3-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in zebrafish while also suppressing acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and increasing acetylcholine (ACh) levels. Moreover, upon coexposure at high concentrations, PS-MPs and SMX acted synergistically to reduce the levels of DA and GABA. The downregulation of key neurodevelopmental genes (elavl3, gap43, and syn2a) and related neurotransmitter pathway genes indicates that PS-MPs and SMX impaired structural development and functional regulation of the nervous system. An integrated biomarker response (IBR) index confirmed that PS-MPs and SMX significantly enhanced developmental neurotoxicity during early neurodevelopment in embryo\u2013larval zebrafish through synergistic effects. Our study provides critical toxicological evidence for the scientific assessment of the ecological risks posed by microplastic\u2013antibiotic cocontamination.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14010074","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T09:03:10Z","timestamp":1768381390000},"page":"74","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Toxic Effects of Polystyrene Microplastics and Sulfamethoxazole on Early Neurodevelopment in Embryo\u2013Larval Zebrafish (Danio rerio)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Fantao","family":"Meng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-Grain Feed Resources (Co-Construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Efficient Feeding, Department of Animal Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271017, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shibo","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-Grain Feed Resources (Co-Construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Efficient Feeding, Department of Animal Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271017, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yajun","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-Grain Feed Resources (Co-Construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Efficient Feeding, Department of Animal Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271017, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chunmei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-Grain Feed Resources (Co-Construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Efficient Feeding, Department of Animal Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271017, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruoming","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-Grain Feed Resources (Co-Construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Efficient Feeding, Department of Animal Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271017, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiting","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-Grain Feed Resources (Co-Construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Efficient Feeding, Department of Animal Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271017, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2024.121960","article-title":"Changes in Characteristics and Risk of Freshwater Microplastics under Global Warming","volume":"260","author":"Chang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.138252","article-title":"UV-Aged Microplastics Induces Neurotoxicity by Affecting the Neurotransmission in Larval Zebrafish","volume":"324","author":"Xiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarasamma, S., Audira, G., Siregar, P., Malhotra, N., Lai, Y.-H., Liang, S.-T., Chen, J.-R., Chen, K.H.-C., and Hsiao, C.-D. 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