{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T22:54:04Z","timestamp":1793055244414,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768953600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless, pungent gas that is a significant contributor to air pollution, with well-documented environmental and health impacts. It is emitted both naturally (e.g., in volcanic activities) and anthropogenically (e.g., fossil fuel combustion, sulfuric acid production, papermaking, and wine preservation). Inhalation represents the primary route of human exposure, particularly in urban and industrial settings. Acute SO2 exposure can lead to airway irritation, laryngospasm, bronchoconstriction, pulmonary edema, and death in severe cases. Chronic exposure, even at low concentrations, can contribute to the development of pulmonary and extrapulmonary diseases. Despite its classification as a hazardous air pollutant, a comprehensive understanding of dose-response relationships, exposure thresholds, and mechanisms of toxicity for SO2 remains limited. This review synthesizes current knowledge on environmental sources, exposure routes, mechanisms of toxicity, and health impacts of SO2, highlighting findings from epidemiological, toxicological, and mechanistic studies. We also discuss gaps in knowledge regarding SO2, approaches to monitor and assess SO2 exposure in ambient environments, the emerging role of SO2 as a gasotransmitter, and areas where further research is needed to better understand health risks and support evidence-based public health decision-making.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14010100","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T15:31:46Z","timestamp":1769009506000},"page":"100","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Toxic Effects of Sulfur Dioxide: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Connor B.","family":"Stauffer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Tat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.5491\/SHAW.2011.2.4.355","article-title":"Odor thresholds and breathing changes of human volunteers as consequences of sulphur dioxide exposure considering individual factors","volume":"2","author":"Kleinbeck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Saf. Health Work."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"United States Enviromental Protection Agency (2025). Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Primary Air Quality Standards."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"United States Enviromental Protection Agency (2025). Primary National Ambient Air Quality Tandard (NAAQS) for Sulfur Dioxide."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"United States Department of Homeland Security (2020). Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards (CFATS)\u2014Chemicals of Interest."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1029\/2000GB001382","article-title":"Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning","volume":"15","author":"Andreae","year":"2001","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44095","DOI":"10.1038\/srep44095","article-title":"A decade of global volcanic SO2 emissions measured from space","volume":"7","author":"Carn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11379","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-21-11379-2021","article-title":"Modeling study of the impact of SO2 volcanic passive emissions on the tropospheric sulfur budget","volume":"21","author":"Lamotte","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.2005.022459","article-title":"The health hazards of volcanoes and geothermal areas","volume":"63","author":"Hansell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"nwaa140","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwaa140","article-title":"Eco-chemical mechanisms govern phytoplankton emissions of dimethylsulfide in global surface waters","volume":"8","author":"Deng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Natl. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15603","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-22-15603-2022","article-title":"Emission factors and evolution of SO2 measured from biomass burning in wildfires and agricultural fires","volume":"22","author":"Rickly","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pester, M., Knorr, K.-H., Friedrich, M.W., Wagner, M., and Loy, A. (2012). Sulfate-reducing microorganisms in wetlands\u2013fameless actors in carbon cycling and climate change. Front. Microbiol., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2012.00072"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Phillips, P.J. (1831). Manufacturing of Sulphuric Acid, Gurney and Jackson."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1","article-title":"Sulfur dioxide: Science behind this antimicrobial, anti-oxidant wine additive","volume":"1","author":"Henderson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pract. Winery Vineyart J."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Buschow, K.H.J., Cahn, R., Flemings, M.C., Ilschner, B., Kramer, E.J., Mahajan, S., and Veyssiere, P. (2001). Paper: Pulping and bleaching. Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Ford, K., Sivalingam, N., Ayech, S., and Jacobsen, A. (2020). Global SO2 Emission Hotspot Database, Center for Research on Energy and Clean Air & Greenpeace."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2314819121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2314819121","article-title":"Probing the dynamics and bottleneck of the key atmospheric SO2 oxidation reaction by the hydroxyl radical","volume":"121","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0088(199605)16:5<487::AID-JOC39>3.0.CO;2-J","article-title":"The impact of Mount Pinatubo on world-wide temperatures","volume":"16","author":"Parker","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199312093292401","article-title":"An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities","volume":"329","author":"Dockery","year":"1993","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2020.01.004","article-title":"Oxidative stress and the cardiovascular effects of air pollution","volume":"151","author":"Miller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2007.09.017","article-title":"Cardiorespiratory health effects associated with sulphurous volcanic air pollution","volume":"122","author":"Longo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leliefeld, P., Koenderman, L., and Pillay, J. (2015). How neutrophils shape adaptive immune responses. Front. Immuno., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00471"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Janeway, C.A., Travers, P., Walport, M., and Shlomchik, M.J. (2001). Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease, Garland Pub."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1926","DOI":"10.1021\/es103739r","article-title":"Detection of sulfur dioxide by cavity ring-down spectroscopy","volume":"45","author":"Medina","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., He, Y., Hu, M., Chen, B., Xu, Z., Yao, L., Wang, X., and Kan, R. (2023). Cavity ring-down spectroscopy with a laser frequency stabilized and locked to a reference target gas absorption for drift-free accurate gas sensing measurements. Front. Phys., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphy.2023.1238869"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Interscan Corporation (2025, November 15). How Do Electrochemical Gas Sensors Work? Understanding Their Role in Industrial Safety. Available online: https:\/\/gasdetection.com\/articles\/how-do-electrochemical-gas-sensors-work-understanding-their-role-in-industrial-safety\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijoes.2025.101043","article-title":"Research progress on electrochemical gas sensors for fire detection","volume":"20","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-315-2018","article-title":"Calibration and assessment of electrochemical air quality sensors by co-location with regulatory-grade instruments","volume":"11","author":"Hagan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2005). Ambient Air\u2013Standard Method for the Measurement of the Concentration of Sulphur Dioxide by Ultraviolet Fluorescence (Standard No. EN 14212:2005). Available online: https:\/\/standards.iteh.ai\/catalog\/standards\/cen\/4c45bb32-9621-4809-88d0-0171ee19c655\/en-14212-2012."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"United States Enviromental Protection Agency (2025). Method 6C\u2014Sulfur Dioxide\u2014Instrumental Analyzer Procedure."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5303","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-12-5303-2019","article-title":"Measurement techniques for identifying and quantifying hydroxymethanesulfonate (HMS) in an aqueous matrix and particulate matter using aerosol mass spectrometry and ion chromatography","volume":"12","author":"Dovrou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1021\/jf025693c","article-title":"Sulfite analysis of fruits and vegetables by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet spectrophotometric detection","volume":"51","author":"McFeeters","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2013.857048","article-title":"Comparison of four different methods for the determination of sulfites in foods marketed in South Korea","volume":"31","author":"Lim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam Part. A"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2151","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.1060","article-title":"Establishing a method of HPLC involving precolumn derivatization by 2,2\u2032-dithiobis (5-nitropyridine) to determine the sulfites in shrimps in comparison with ion chromatography","volume":"7","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Gleichauf, G. (2025, November 15). Accelerating Food and Beverage Sulfite Testing Using Automated Titration Technology. Labcompare Website. Available online: https:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/557677-Accelerating-Food-and-Beverage-Sulfite-Testing-Using-Automated-Titration-Technology\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"United States Department of Health and Human Services (1998). Toxicological Profile for Sulfur Dioxide."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2025, November 15). Medical Management Guidelines for Sulfur Dioxide, Available online: https:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/TSP\/MMG\/MMGDetails.aspx?mmgid=249&toxid=46."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2011.01.014","article-title":"Acute effects of air pollution on pediatric asthma exacerbation: Evidence of association and effect modification","volume":"111","author":"Samoli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116888","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.116888","article-title":"Short-term exposure to sulfur dioxide and the occurrence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis based on risk of bias and certainty of evidence","volume":"284","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1658","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.314.7095.1658","article-title":"Short term effects of ambient sulphur dioxide and particulate matter on mortality in 12 European cities: Results from time series data from the APHEA project","volume":"314","author":"Katsouyanni","year":"1997","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2012.07.003","article-title":"Short-term exposure to sulfur dioxide and daily mortality in 17 Chinese cities: The China air pollution and health effects study (CAPES)","volume":"118","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110503","article-title":"The burden of sulfur dioxide pollution on years of life lost from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A nationwide analysis in China","volume":"194","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106434","article-title":"Short-term exposure to sulphur dioxide (SO2) and all-cause and respiratory mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"150","author":"Orellano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1159\/000194087","article-title":"Obstructive lung disease from acute sulfur dioxide exposure","volume":"38","author":"Woodford","year":"1979","journal-title":"Respiration"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm\/139.2.556","article-title":"Clinical and laboratory features of acute sulfur dioxide inhalation poisoning: Two-year follow-up","volume":"139","author":"Rabinovitch","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2225","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1991.03470160057032","article-title":"Fatal asthma attack after inhaling sulfur fumes","volume":"266","author":"Huber","year":"1991","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Gorrell, M. (2017). Kennecott Worker Dies from Exposure to Sulfur Dioxide at Smelter, The Salt Lake Tribune."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"555","article-title":"Pulmonary injuries associated with acute sulfur dioxide inhalation","volume":"119","author":"Charan","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"EHI.S15671","DOI":"10.4137\/EHI.S15671","article-title":"Mechanisms of heightened airway sensitivity and responses to inhaled SO2 in asthmatics","volume":"9","author":"Reno","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Health Insights"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.02110991","article-title":"Mortality from lung cancer in workers exposed to sulfur dioxide in the pulp and paper industry","volume":"110","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-12-113","article-title":"Incidence of chronic bronchitis in a cohort of pulp mill workers with repeated gassings to sulphur dioxide and other irritant gases","volume":"12","author":"Andersson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.1033","article-title":"Effect of sulfur dioxide and particulate pollutants on bronchitis in children\u2014A risk analysis","volume":"16","author":"Herbarth","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.3200\/AEOH.59.5.266-275","article-title":"Childhood asthma hospitalizations and ambient air sulfur dioxide concentrations in Bronx County, New York","volume":"59","author":"Lin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L539","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00239.2023","article-title":"Repetitive sulfur dioxide exposure in mice models post-deployment respiratory syndrome","volume":"326","author":"Gutor","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/1745-6673-1-12","article-title":"Analysis of airway secretions in a model of sulfur dioxide induced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)","volume":"1","author":"Wagner","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Occup. Med. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"824724","article-title":"Sulfur dioxide and emergency department visits for stroke and seizure","volume":"2012","author":"Szyszkowicz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Stroke Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.06.057","article-title":"Association between ambient air pollution and hospitalization for ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in China: A multicity case-crossover study","volume":"230","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.128857","article-title":"Ambient sulfur dioxide and years of life lost from stroke in China: A time-series analysis in 48 cities","volume":"267","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, J., Han, K., Wang, Y., Qu, R., Liu, Y., Wang, S., Wang, Y., An, Z., Li, J., and Wu, H. (2022). Microglial activation and oxidative stress in PM2.5-induced neurodegenerative disorders. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11081482"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2024.120535","article-title":"New mechanisms of PM2.5 induced atherosclerosis: Source dependent toxicity and pathogenesis","volume":"266","author":"Niu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marin-Castaneda, L.A., Gonzalez-Garibay, G., Garcia-Quintana, I., Pacheco-Aispuro, G., and Rubio, C. (2024). Mechanisms of ozone-induced neurotoxicity in the development and progression of dementia: A brief review. Front. Aging Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2024.1494356"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roy, R., and D\u2019Angiulli, A. (2024). Air pollution and neurological diseases, current state highlights. Front. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1351721"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.109551","article-title":"Associations between the incidence and mortality rates of type 2 diabetes mellitus and long-term exposure to ambient air pollution: A 12-year cohort study in northern China","volume":"186","author":"Shan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.117886","article-title":"Short-term exposure to ambient air pollution and type 2 diabetes mortality: A population-based time series study","volume":"289","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110624","article-title":"Long-term exposure to ozone and sulfur dioxide increases the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus among aged 30 to 50 adult population","volume":"194","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00078","DOI":"10.1042\/BSR20130087","article-title":"The degradation of airway tight junction protein under acidic conditions is probably mediated by transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 receptor","volume":"33","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2013.1537","article-title":"Acid-induced cell injury and death in lung epithelial cells is associated with the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2015.07.001","article-title":"Resolution of lung injury after a single event of aspiration: A model of bilateral instillation of whole gastric fluid","volume":"185","author":"Araos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1213\/00000539-198907000-00017","article-title":"Acute acid aspiration lung injury in the rat: Biphasic pathogenesis","volume":"69","author":"Kennedy","year":"1989","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-016-0379-7","article-title":"Acute lung injury induced by whole gastric fluid: Hepatic acute phase response contributes to increase lung antiprotease protection","volume":"17","author":"Ayala","year":"2016","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1293\/tox.2020-0086","article-title":"Comparison of acute inhalation toxicity of sulfuric acid by the inhalation and intratracheal instillation methods","volume":"34","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.00026.2008","article-title":"Breathtaking TRP channels: TRPA1 and TRPV1 in airway chemosensation and reflex control","volume":"23","author":"Bessac","year":"2008","journal-title":"Physiology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2007.08.026","article-title":"Acid-induced modulation of airway basal tone and contractility: Role of acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) and TRPV1 receptor","volume":"81","author":"Faisy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holzer, P. (2009). Acid-sensitive ion channels and receptors. Sensory Nerves, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-79090-7_9"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712962","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/712962","article-title":"Ionotropic and metabotropic proton-sensing receptors involved in airway inflammation in allergic asthma","volume":"2014","author":"Aoki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pupt.2006.09.003","article-title":"Sulfur-dioxide exposure increases TRPV1-mediated responses in nodose ganglia cells and augments cough in guinea pigs","volume":"20","author":"McLeod","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pulm. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2010.09.057","article-title":"SO2 inhalation modulates the expression of pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic genes in rat heart and lung","volume":"185","author":"Yun","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-007-0212-7","article-title":"Effects of SO2 derivatives on expressions of MUC5AC and IL-13 in human bronchial epithelial cells","volume":"81","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2007.09.011","article-title":"Effects of sulfur dioxide derivatives on four asthma-related gene expressions in human bronchial epithelial cells","volume":"175","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2017.12.020","article-title":"Sulfur dioxide exposure enhances Th2 inflammatory responses via activating STAT6 pathway in asthmatic mice","volume":"285","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.93101234","article-title":"Neurogenic inflammation and sensitivity to environmental chemicals","volume":"101","author":"Meggs","year":"1993","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1159\/000196324","article-title":"Sulfur dioxide and sodium metabisulfite induce bronchoconstriction in the isolated perfused and ventilated guinea pig lung via stimulation of capsaicin-sensitive sensory nerves","volume":"61","author":"Bannenberg","year":"1994","journal-title":"Respiration"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1080\/15376516.2019.1710888","article-title":"Critical role of mitochondrial oxidative stress in acid aspiration induced ALI in mice","volume":"30","author":"Puri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Toxicol. Mech. Methods"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s43141-021-00139-w","article-title":"HCl-induced acute lung injury: A study of the curative role of mesenchymal stem\/stromal cells and cobalt protoporphyrin","volume":"19","author":"Saad","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Genet. Eng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5379","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.9b00697","article-title":"Mitigation of hydrochloric acid (HCl)-induced lung injury in mice by aerosol therapy of surface-active nanovesicles containing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory drugs","volume":"2","author":"Shah","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17982","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0404762101","article-title":"Widespread sulfenic acid formation in tissues in response to hydrogen peroxide","volume":"101","author":"Saurin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/0891-5849(93)90148-N","article-title":"Sulfite stimulates NADPH oxidase of human neutrophils to produce active oxygen radicals via protein kinase C and Ca2+\/calmodulin pathways","volume":"14","author":"Liese","year":"1993","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2017.12.014","article-title":"Sulfite-induced protein radical formation in LPS aerosol-challenged mice: Implications for sulfite sensitivity in human lung disease","volume":"15","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1080\/08958370304476","article-title":"Oxidative damage of sulfur dioxide on various organs of mice: Sulfur dioxide is a systemic oxidative damage agent","volume":"15","author":"Meng","year":"2003","journal-title":"Inhal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-9351(03)00045-8","article-title":"Oxidative damage of sulfur dioxide inhalation on lungs and hearts of mice","volume":"93","author":"Meng","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1080\/08958370701399885","article-title":"Protein oxidation and DNA\u2013protein crosslink induced by sulfur dioxide in lungs, livers, and hearts from mice","volume":"19","author":"Xie","year":"2007","journal-title":"Inhal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"103","article-title":"Effect of SO2 inhalation on the levels of GSH and GSH\/GSSG in 9 organs of mice","volume":"32","author":"Geng","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Hyg. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1007\/s00244-003-2157-z","article-title":"Effect of sulfur dioxide inhalation on the glutathione redox system in mice and protective role of sea buckthorn seed oil","volume":"45","author":"Wu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfr224","article-title":"SO2-induced neurotoxicity is mediated by cyclooxygenases-2-derived prostaglandin E2 and its downstream signaling pathway in rat hippocampal neurons","volume":"124","author":"Sang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfq010","article-title":"SO2 inhalation contributes to the development and progression of ischemic stroke in the brain","volume":"114","author":"Sang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19616","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-70646-6","article-title":"Effect of air pollutants particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and ozone (O3) on cognitive health","volume":"14","author":"Meo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfw048","article-title":"Sulfur dioxide contributes to the cardiac and mitochondrial dysfunction in rats","volume":"151","author":"Qin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1152\/advan.00052.2006","article-title":"PGC-1\u03b1: A key regulator of energy metabolism","volume":"30","author":"Liang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Physiol. Educ."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-018-0287-z","article-title":"Essential roles of mitochondrial biogenesis regulator Nrf1 in retinal development and homeostasis","volume":"13","author":"Kiyama","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1038\/s41556-024-01419-6","article-title":"TFAM is an autophagy receptor that limits inflammation by binding to cytoplasmic mitochondrial DNA","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8961951","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/8961951","article-title":"Endogenous sulfur dioxide: A new member of gasotransmitter family in the cardiovascular system","volume":"2016","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"1107","article-title":"Effect of endogenous sulfur dioxide in regulating cardiovascular oxidative stress","volume":"29","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Histol. Histopathol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2021.101898","article-title":"Endogenous SO2-dependent Smad3 redox modification controls vascular remodeling","volume":"41","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2021.0213","article-title":"Sulfur dioxide: Endogenous generation, biological effects, detection, and therapeutic potential","volume":"36","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27026","DOI":"10.1038\/srep27026","article-title":"Endogenous sulfur dioxide is a novel adipocyte-derived inflammatory inhibitor","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13098","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201901304R","article-title":"Hydrogen sulfide signaling in mitochondria and disease","volume":"33","author":"Murphy","year":"2019","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30901","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M114.602664","article-title":"Organization of the human mitochondrial hydrogen sulfide oxidation pathway","volume":"289","author":"Libiad","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4529060","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/4529060","article-title":"Role of endogenous sulfur dioxide in regulating vascular structural remodeling in hypertension","volume":"2016","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1251","DOI":"10.1038\/cddis.2014.229","article-title":"Sulfur dioxide inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation via suppressing the Erk\/MAP kinase pathway mediated by cAMP\/PKA signaling","volume":"5","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.2014.147","article-title":"Endogeous sulfur dioxide protects against oleic acid-induced acute lung injury in association with inhibition of oxidative stress in rats","volume":"95","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pharmtox-011112-140320","article-title":"Role of nrf2 in oxidative stress and toxicity","volume":"53","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.03.034","article-title":"ROS function in redox signaling and oxidative stress","volume":"24","author":"Schieber","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1515\/reveh-2022-0237","article-title":"Effects of sulfur dioxide inhalation on human health: A review","volume":"39","author":"Khalaf","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gorzkiewicz, M., \u0141o\u015b-Rycharska, E., Gawryjo\u0142ek, J., Go\u0142\u0119biewski, M., Krogulska, A., and Grzybowski, T. (2023). The methylation profile of IL4, IL5, IL10, IFNG and FOXP3 associated with environmental exposures differed between Polish infants with the food allergy and\/or atopic dermatitis and without the disease. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1209190"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4067","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-83577-3","article-title":"Air pollution exposure is linked with methylation of immunoregulatory genes, altered immune cell profiles, and increased blood pressure in children","volume":"11","author":"Prunicki","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55981","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-16056-x","article-title":"Air pollution-induced epigenetic changes: Disease development and a possible link with hypersensitivity pneumonitis","volume":"28","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/1\/100\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T09:47:02Z","timestamp":1769161622000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/1\/100"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics14010100"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics14010100","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]]}}}