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Source apportionment was further investigated using characteristic ratios, correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression. The results indicate that the average concentration of \u03a324OVOCs during the observation period was 2.70 \u00b1 1.55 ppb. Formaldehyde, acetone, and acetaldehyde were the dominant species, accounting for 94.5% of the total concentration in this background area. A significant seasonal difference in carbonyl concentrations was observed, with the average concentration in autumn (3.68 \u00b1 1.66 ppb) being approximately 2.1 times higher than that in winter (1.78 \u00b1 0.58 ppb). The diurnal variation in most carbonyls exhibited a pattern of nighttime accumulation and daytime depletion, which was consistent with the trend of NO2. The OFP results show that the average OFP of \u03a324OVOCs was 30 \u00b1 16 \u03bcg\/m3, with formaldehyde contributing 86.9%, identifying it as a key precursor for ozone formation in the background region. Source analysis revealed that carbonyl compounds in autumn were influenced by combined natural, vehicular, and industrial sources, with significant secondary formation (27\u201336%) observed for C2 (acetaldehyde) and C3 (mainly acetone and propanal) species. In winter, anthropogenic contributions to carbonyls increased, with C2 and C3 species primarily originating from combustion sources, vehicle emissions, and industrial releases. This study provides the first insights into the pollution characteristics and source profiles of carbonyl compounds during autumn and winter at the Shangdianzi background site, offering a scientific basis for understanding regional atmospheric oxidative capacity and formulating integrated air pollution control strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14020156","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T13:56:23Z","timestamp":1770213383000},"page":"156","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Atmospheric Carbonyl Compounds at Shangdianzi, Beijing: Autumn-to-Winter Variation, Ozone Formation Potential, and Source Apportionment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Yufei","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaoshuai","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junling","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shudan","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7697-4425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yushi","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haijie","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yanqin","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yucong","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weigang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0457-1017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maofa","family":"Ge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3984","DOI":"10.1021\/cr500549n","article-title":"Atmospheric Chemistry of Oxygenated Volatile Organic Compounds: Impacts on Air Quality and Climate","volume":"115","author":"Mellouki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. 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