{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T05:29:25Z","timestamp":1778045365121,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a significant health issue among ageing men, with ongoing research focused on elucidating its underlying mechanisms and improving experimental models. Testosterone Propionate (TP) is the first line of choice for the induction of BPH in experimental rodent models. However, TP\u2019s controlled status as a Schedule III drug in the United States and a Class C drug in the UK presents challenges in obtaining TP for experimental use, giving preference to the sulpiride model since it is easily obtained as an alternative for the induction and study of BPH. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across multiple electronic databases, including PubMed\/MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science. The primary PubMed search strategy included combinations of Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and free-text terms: (\u201cBenign prostatic hyperplasia induction\u201d OR \u201cand rodent models\u2019\u2019) AND (\u201cTestosterone Propionate model\u201d) AND (\u201csulpiride model\u201d). Studies were included if they induced BPH (using testosterone or sulpiride models). Titles and abstracts were screened for relevance; eligible articles underwent full-text review, with data extracted thematically. No formal risk-of-bias scoring was used due to the narrative approach; instead, studies were appraised by design, rigor, plausibility, and evidence. This study reviewed published and publicly available data, so no ethical approval was required. Although both TP and sulpiride induce BPH via various mechanisms, this review provides a comparative analysis of these two commonly utilised models for studying BPH. In the TP approach, castrated rodents receive daily subcutaneous injections for 4 weeks, resulting in dihydrotestosterone (DHT)-mediated epithelial hyperplasia predominantly affecting the ventral prostate lobes. Conversely, the sulpiride model is non-invasive, employs intact animals treated with sulpiride, and induces hyperprolactinemia-mediated BPH via interactions with androgen and oestrogen receptor pathways that stimulate prostatic stromal and epithelial proliferation, particularly in the lateral and dorsal lobes, representing an alternative method. We also highlight the strengths and limitations of TP and sulpiride in replicating clinical symptoms and examine the toxicological effects of sulpiride on the kidney, testis, liver, and brain. We recommend the sulpiride model for the induction and studying of BPH, as it is readily accessible and closely mimics the pathogenesis of BPH in humans, unlike the TP model, which requires castration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14020180","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T07:50:30Z","timestamp":1771401030000},"page":"180","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Exploring Sulpiride as an Alternative to Testosterone Propionate for Inducing Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Rodent Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4973-0376","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Solomon","family":"Owumi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Research and Molecular Biology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-0524-592X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esther","family":"Pius","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Research and Molecular Biology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-9469-0465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hikmah","family":"Abdulganiyu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Research and Molecular Biology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5257-5548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ifeoluwa","family":"Alabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Research and Molecular Biology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-8413-6024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victor","family":"Eso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Research and Molecular Biology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5131-0502","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdullah","family":"Sanusi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Research and Molecular Biology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-3800-3041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oluwaseun","family":"Owolabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer Research and Molecular Biology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5315-2695","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Uche","family":"Arunsi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jesutosin","family":"Babalola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutrition and Industrial Biochemistry Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7721-7238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Moses","family":"Otunla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1643-2647","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ayomide","family":"Akomolafe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Centre, Omaha, NE 68198, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0478-0927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emiola","family":"Olapade-Olaopa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200004, Oyo State, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2248-9551","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adegboyega","family":"Oyelere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Olorunseun","family":"Ogunwobi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Michigan State University, Lansing, MI 48824, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chima","family":"Amadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dedra Nutraceuticals and Biotechnology Initiative, Garki 900024, Abuja FCT, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrimani, D.S.R., Francischini, M.C.P., Brito, M.M., and Vannucchi, C.I. (2020). Prostatic hyperplasia: Vascularization, hemodynamic and hormonal analysis of dogs treated with finasteride or orchiectomy. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0234714"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chung, E.-H., Kim, J.-W., Kim, J.-H., Jeong, J.-S., Lim, J.-H., Boo, S.-Y., Ko, J.-W., and Kim, T.W. (2024). Ageratum conyzoides Extract Ameliorates Testosterone-Induced Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia via Inhibiting Proliferation, Inflammation of Prostates, and Induction of Apoptosis in Rats. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16142267"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1080\/13685538.2018.1434772","article-title":"Epidemiology and risk factors of lower urinary tract symptoms\/benign prostatic hyperplasia and erectile dysfunction","volume":"22","author":"Calogero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Male"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31556","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-83483-4","article-title":"Magnitude and factors associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia among adult male patients visiting Wolaita Sodo University comprehensive specialized hospital southern Ethiopia","volume":"14","author":"Tiruneh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"e32141","article-title":"Cleistanthins A and B Ameliorate Testosterone-Induced Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Castrated Rats by Regulating Apoptosis and Cell Differentiation","volume":"14","author":"Raveendran","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2750","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-87205-2","article-title":"Comprehensive RNA-seq analysis of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in rats exposed to testosterone and estradiol","volume":"15","author":"Tang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2010.03.016","article-title":"Synthesis, spectroscopic and thermal characterization of sulpiride complexes of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, and zinc salts. Antibacterial and antifungal activity","volume":"76","author":"Mohamed","year":"2010","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.2165\/00002018-199614050-00003","article-title":"A risk-benefit assessment of sulpiride in the treatment of schizophrenia","volume":"14","author":"Mauri","year":"1996","journal-title":"Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"2551","article-title":"Oral exposure of sulpiride promotes the proliferation of Brown-Norway rat prostates","volume":"19","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2362","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2014.2081","article-title":"\u03b1-Spinasterol from Melandrium firmum attenuates benign prostatic hyperplasia in a rat model","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1038\/aja.2011.166","article-title":"Effects of Melandrium firmum methanolic extract on testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in Wistar rats","volume":"14","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Asian J. Androl."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.M., Lee, S.M., and Song, J. (2024). Effects of Taraxaci Herba (Dandelion) on Testosterone Propionate-Induced Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Rats. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16081189"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diff.2011.04.006","article-title":"Androgens and estrogens in benign prostatic hyperplasia: Past, present and future","volume":"82","author":"Nicholson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Differentiation"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cont.2024.101711","article-title":"Testosterone and 5 Alpha Reductase Inhibitor (5ARI) in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): A historical perspective","volume":"12","author":"Diokno","year":"2024","journal-title":"Continence"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1111\/andr.12186","article-title":"Endocrine control of benign prostatic hyperplasia","volume":"4","author":"Condorelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Andrology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7958316","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/7958316","article-title":"Review of the Roles and Interaction of Androgen and Inflammation in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia","volume":"2020","author":"Tong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1942","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2013.02.028","article-title":"Androgen receptor roles in the development of benign prostate hyperplasia","volume":"182","author":"Izumi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stewart, K.L., and Lephart, E.D. (2023). Overview of BPH: Symptom Relief with Dietary Polyphenols, Vitamins and Phytochemicals by Nutraceutical Supplements with Implications to the Prostate Microbiome. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065486"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2023.09.010","article-title":"Cell Plasticity in a Mouse Model of Benign Prostate Hyperplasia Drives Amplification of Androgen-Independent Epithelial Cell Populations Sensitive to Antioxidant Therapy","volume":"194","author":"Carbone","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Q., Li, T., Zhao, L., Sun, Y., Mao, Z., Xing, Y., Wang, C., and Bo, Q. (2024). Treatment of antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Front. Psychiatry, 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1337274"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.4103\/ijem.IJEM_555_16","article-title":"Levosulpiride and Serum Prolactin Levels","volume":"21","author":"Kuchay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indian J. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2181","DOI":"10.3892\/ol.2015.3034","article-title":"Bilateral mammary duct ectasia induced by sulpiride-associated hyperprolactinemia: A case report","volume":"9","author":"Cong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2021.0140","article-title":"A Meta-Analysis of Antipsychotic-Induced Hypo- and Hyperprolactinemia in Children and Adolescents","volume":"32","author":"Kroigaard","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1517\/17425255.2013.791283","article-title":"Drug-induced hypo- and hyperprolactinemia: Mechanisms, clinical and therapeutic consequences","volume":"9","author":"Voicu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1002\/iub.13","article-title":"Effects of sulpiride on mRNA levels of steroid 5alpha-reductase isozymes in prostate of adult rats","volume":"60","author":"Sanchez","year":"2008","journal-title":"IUBMB Life"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2016.02.011","article-title":"Effect of hyperprolactinemia on PRL-receptor expression and activation of Stat and Mapk cell signaling in the prostate of long-term sexually-active rats","volume":"157","author":"Manzo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2770","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2003-032055","article-title":"Prolactin and prostate hypertrophy: A pilot observational, prospective, case-control study in men with prolactinoma","volume":"89","author":"Colao","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E120","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.2001.280.1.E120","article-title":"Effects of hyperprolactinemia on rat prostate growth: Evidence of androgeno-dependence","volume":"280","author":"Slomianny","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1210\/me.2013-1207","article-title":"Targeting stromal androgen receptor suppresses prolactin-driven benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)","volume":"27","author":"Lai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1007\/s10068-019-00605-9","article-title":"Use of saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) extract for benign prostatic hyperplasia","volume":"28","author":"Kwon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J.Y., Park, W.Y., Song, G., Jung, S.J., Kim, B., Choi, M., Kim, S.H., Park, J., Kwak, H.J., and Ahn, K.S. (2023). Panax ginseng C.A. meyer alleviates benign prostatic hyperplasia while preventing finasteride-induced side effects. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1039622"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-020-04748-2","article-title":"Morphological and Biochemical Characteristics of Prostate Hyperplasia during Sulpiride Treatment","volume":"168","author":"Tsvetkov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bull. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70184","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.70184","article-title":"Portulaca oleracea Extract Ameliorates Testosterone Propionate-Induced Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Male Sprague-Dawley Rats","volume":"11","author":"Lim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"137","article-title":"Determination of effective dose of testosterone propionate for the induction of benign prostatic hyperplasia in Wistar rats","volume":"24","author":"Eruotor","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Afr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2014-1784","article-title":"The effects of short-term and long-term testosterone supplementation on blood viscosity and erythrocyte deformability in healthy adult mice","volume":"156","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14192","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.14192","article-title":"Chronic high-dose testosterone treatment: Impact on rat cardiac contractile biology","volume":"7","author":"Wadthaisong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.5778","article-title":"Methyl Jasmonate Ameliorates Testosterone Propionate-induced Prostatic Hyperplasia in Castrated Wistar Rats","volume":"31","author":"Akanni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prnil.2021.05.001","article-title":"Androgen deprivation therapy may reduce the risk of primary open-angle glaucoma in patients with prostate cancer: A nationwide population-based cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Ahn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prostate Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2550","DOI":"10.1021\/cb400542w","article-title":"Selectively targeting prostate cancer with antiandrogen equipped histone deacetylase inhibitors","volume":"8","author":"Gryder","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Cheng, D., and Li, P. (2025). Androgen receptor dynamics in prostate cancer: From disease progression to treatment resistance. Front. Oncol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2025.1542811"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"205","article-title":"The Etiology and Pathogenesis of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia: The Roles of Sex Hormones and Anatomy","volume":"16","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Res. Rep. Urol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.4103\/1008-682X.140966","article-title":"Testosterone and benign prostatic hyperplasia","volume":"17","author":"Jarvis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian J. Androl."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-013-2081-9","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of the efficiency of prostatotropic agents of natural origin in experimental benign prostatic hyperplasia","volume":"155","author":"Borovskaya","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9718","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.3929","article-title":"Rapatar, a nanoformulation of rapamycin, decreases chemically-induced benign prostate hyperplasia in rats","volume":"6","author":"Lesovaya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sens-Albert, C., Weisenburger, S., Konig, B.C., Melcher, S.F., Scheyhing, U.A.M., Rollet, K., Lluel, P., Koch, E., Lehner, M.D., and Michel, M.C. (2024). Effects of a proprietary mixture of extracts from Sabal serrulata fruits and Urtica dioica roots (WS((R)) 1541) on prostate hyperplasia and inflammation in rats and human cells. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1379456"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"129","article-title":"Modifications of the accessory glands of male genital tract of intact and castrated rats after sulpiride treatment (author's transl)","volume":"40","author":"Oria","year":"1979","journal-title":"Ann. D\u2019endocrinologie"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87194","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.19909","article-title":"Vanillic acid attenuates testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in rats and inhibits proliferation of prostatic epithelial cells","volume":"8","author":"Jung","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.1091910104","article-title":"Synergistic effects of prolactin and testosterone in the restoration of rat prostatic epithelium following castration","volume":"191","author":"Thompson","year":"1978","journal-title":"Anat. Rec."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-009-0400-7","article-title":"Prolactin and estradiol utilize distinct mechanisms to increase serine-118 phosphorylation and decrease levels of estrogen receptor alpha in T47D breast cancer cells","volume":"120","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.54203\/scil.2025.wvj5","article-title":"Effects of Sulpiride on the Reproductive System of Male Rats after Puberty","volume":"15","author":"Abd","year":"2025","journal-title":"World\u2019s Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2013.08.027","article-title":"Lactational exposure to sulpiride: Assessment of maternal care and reproductive and behavioral parameters of male rat pups","volume":"122","author":"Vieira","year":"2013","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/S0015-0282(16)48686-3","article-title":"Influence of chronic hyperprolactinemia induced by sulpiride on the hypothalamo-pituitary-testicular axis in normal men","volume":"44","author":"Oseko","year":"1985","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Tian, Y., Guo, S., Gu, H., Yuan, Q., and Xie, X. (2018). Testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia rat and dog as facile models to assess drugs targeting lower urinary tract symptoms. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0191469"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.b18-00313","article-title":"Effect of Veratrum maackii on Testosterone Propionate-Induced Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Rats","volume":"42","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.9734\/ajrimps\/2025\/v14i2308","article-title":"Impact of Testosterone Propionate on Semen Quality and Endocrine Profile in Male Wistar Rats","volume":"14","author":"Harrison","year":"2025","journal-title":"Asian J. Res. Med. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/and.12288","article-title":"Effect of long-term testosterone propionate or human chorionic gonadotrophin administration on reproductive glands in adult male rabbits","volume":"47","author":"Hussein","year":"2015","journal-title":"Andrologia"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Westfield, G., Kaiser, U.B., Lamb, D.J., and Ramasamy, R. (2020). Short-Acting Testosterone: More Physiologic?. Front. Endocrinol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.572465"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2023.121747","article-title":"Comparative effects of finasteride and laser-irradiated silver nanoparticles on testicular function and histology in testosterone induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in rats","volume":"324","author":"Marghani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3403","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/des340","article-title":"Integrity of the blood-testis barrier in healthy men after suppression of spermatogenesis with testosterone and levonorgestrel","volume":"27","author":"Ilani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1139\/cjpp-2017-0459","article-title":"Oxidative stress burden inhibits spermatogenesis in adult male rats: Testosterone protective effect","volume":"96","author":"Makary","year":"2018","journal-title":"Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.repbio.2013.07.005","article-title":"Estradiol and testosterone inhibit rat seminiferous tubule development in a hormone-specific way","volume":"13","author":"Marchlewska","year":"2013","journal-title":"Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tusubira, D., Aja, P.M., Munezero, J., Ssedyabane, F., Namale, N., Ifie, J.E., Agu, P.C., Ajayi, C.O., and Okoboi, J. (2023). Safety profile of colocasia esculenta tuber extracts in benign prostate hyperplasia. BMC Complement. Med. Ther., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-023-04018-4"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01973684","article-title":"Effects of high doses of testosterone propionate and testosterone enanthate on rat seminiferous tubules\u2014A stereological and cytological study","volume":"67","author":"Jezek","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.36347\/sjmcr.2023.v11i08.020","article-title":"A Rare Case of Acute Hepatitis Following Therapy with Sulpiride","volume":"11","author":"Snoussi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sch. J. Med. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2018.02.023","article-title":"The antipsychotics sulpiride induces fatty liver in rats via phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 at Serine 307-mediated adipose tissue insulin resistance","volume":"345","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00196529","article-title":"Bile ductopenia following therapy with sulpiride","volume":"427","author":"Villari","year":"1995","journal-title":"Virchows Arch."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-198917050-00005","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of sulpiride after intravenous administration in patients with impaired renal function","volume":"17","author":"Bressolle","year":"1989","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25404","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-08914-x","article-title":"The role of sulpiride in attenuating the cardiac, renal, and immune disruptions in rats receiving clozapine: mRNA expression pattern of the genes encoding Kim-1, TIMP-1, and CYP isoforms","volume":"27","author":"Mohammed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00558453","article-title":"The pharmacokinetics of intravenous and oral sulpiride in healthy human subjects","volume":"17","author":"Wiesel","year":"1980","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00315100","article-title":"Dissociation of renal vasodilator and natriuretic effects of dopamine during sulpiride infusion in normal man","volume":"39","author":"Smit","year":"1990","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1042\/cs0810427","article-title":"Mediators of the direct effects of amino acids on the rat kidney","volume":"81","author":"Haylor","year":"1991","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1980.sp013093","article-title":"The actions of dopamine and of sulpiride on regional blood flows in the rat kidney","volume":"298","author":"Chapman","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1097\/00005344-198301000-00013","article-title":"Blockade of dopamine receptors in the renal vasculature by isomers of flupenthixol and sulpiride","volume":"5","author":"Schmidt","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1159\/000185382","article-title":"Antagonistic effects of sulpiride--racemic and enantiomers--on renal response to low-dose dopamine infusion in normal women","volume":"51","author":"Agnoli","year":"1989","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xphs.2017.05.006","article-title":"Possible Role of Organic Cation Transporters in the Distribution of [11C] Sulpiride, a Dopamine D(2) Receptor Antagonist","volume":"106","author":"Takano","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1002\/bdd.2104","article-title":"Multiple organic cation transporters contribute to the renal transport of sulpiride","volume":"38","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biopharm. Drug Dispos."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16861","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-52528-4","article-title":"Dopamine D(2) receptor modulates Wnt expression and control of cell proliferation","volume":"9","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfh660","article-title":"New-onset type II diabetes mellitus, hyperosmolar non-ketotic coma, rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure in a patient treated with sulpiride","volume":"20","author":"Toprak","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine1962.30.387","article-title":"A case of neuroleptic malignant syndrome with acute renal failure after the discontinuation of sulpiride and maprotiline","volume":"30","author":"Kiyatake","year":"1991","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"(2007). Sulpiride overdose. React. Wkly., 1152, 24."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2025.117238","article-title":"Anabolic-androgen steroids: A possible independent risk factor to Cardiovascular, Kidney and Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"495","author":"Escouto","year":"2025","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E435","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00704.2006","article-title":"Testosterone exacerbates obstructive renal injury by stimulating TNF-alpha production and increasing proapoptotic and profibrotic signaling","volume":"294","author":"Metcalfe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1755.2004.00497.x","article-title":"Testosterone promotes apoptotic damage in human renal tubular cells","volume":"65","author":"Verzola","year":"2004","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10726","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-29023-3","article-title":"Amelioratory Effects of Testosterone Propionate on Age-related Renal Fibrosis via Suppression of TGF-beta1\/Smad Signaling and Activation of Nrf2-ARE Signaling","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-019-1821-7","article-title":"Testosterone induces renal tubular epithelial cell death through the HIF-1alpha\/BNIP3 pathway","volume":"17","author":"Peng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1097\/MAJ.0b013e31820f835b","article-title":"Effects of testosterone on renal function in salt-loaded rats","volume":"342","author":"Hu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e190850","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI190850","article-title":"Unveiling mechanisms underlying kidney function changes during sex hormone therapy","volume":"135","author":"Pyle","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17973","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-22169-1","article-title":"Environmentally-relevant concentrations of the antipsychotic drugs sulpiride and clozapine induce abnormal dopamine and serotonin signaling in zebrafish brain","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1177\/147323000102900407","article-title":"Sulpiride in the treatment of somatoform disorders: Results of a European observational study to characterize the responder profile","volume":"29","author":"Rouillon","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7","DOI":"10.1017\/pen.2020.7","article-title":"A low dosage of the dopamine D2-receptor antagonist sulpiride affects effort allocation for reward regardless of trait extraversion","volume":"3","author":"Ohmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Personal. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2014.01.025","article-title":"The role of D2-autoreceptors in regulating dopamine neuron activity and transmission","volume":"282","author":"Ford","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chavanon, M.L., Wacker, J., and Stemmler, G. (2013). Paradoxical dopaminergic drug effects in extraversion: Dose- and time-dependent effects of sulpiride on EEG theta activity. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00117"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2014.12.040","article-title":"Activation of postsynaptic D2 dopamine receptors in the rat dorsolateral striatum prevents the amnestic effect of systemically administered neuroleptics","volume":"281","author":"Boschen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2013","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S296726","article-title":"Precisely Fabricated Sulpiride-Loaded Nanolipospheres with Ameliorated Oral Bioavailability and Antidepressant Activity","volume":"16","author":"Mohyeldin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1566","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2533-20.2020","article-title":"Corticosterone Attenuates Reward-Seeking Behavior and Increases Anxiety via D2 Receptor Signaling in Ventral Tegmental Area Dopamine Neurons","volume":"41","author":"Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-022-05613-0","article-title":"Modeling of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Rats with a High Dose of Testosterone","volume":"173","author":"Sorokina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bull. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-022-09767-0","article-title":"The role of testosterone, the androgen receptor, and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in depression in ageing Men","volume":"23","author":"Hauger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bqae113","DOI":"10.1210\/endocr\/bqae113","article-title":"Androgen Inhibition of Reproductive Neuroendocrine Function in Females and Transgender Males","volume":"165","author":"Kauffman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2024.105528","article-title":"Androgen regulation of behavioral stress responses and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis","volume":"162","author":"Zuloaga","year":"2024","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2022.121155","article-title":"Activation of androgen receptors alters hippocampal synaptic plasticity and memory retention through modulation of L-type calcium channels","volume":"314","author":"Zarei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.3109\/10641963.2010.531840","article-title":"Androgens alter brain catecholamine content and blood pressure in the testicular feminized male rat","volume":"33","author":"Ely","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110863","article-title":"Biochemical and histomorphological changes in testosterone propionate-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in male Wistar rats treated with ketogenic diet","volume":"132","author":"Kayode","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, R., Kang, Y., Wang, L., Li, S., Ji, X., Yan, W., Zhang, G., Cui, H., and Shi, G. (2017). Testosterone Propionate Exacerbates the Deficits of Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System and Downregulates Nrf2 Expression in Reserpine-Treated Aged Male Rats. Front. Aging Neurosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2017.00172"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2933","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-020-03090-6","article-title":"Chronic inflammation promotes proliferation in the prostatic stroma in rats with experimental autoimmune prostatitis: Study for a novel method of inducing benign prostatic hyperplasia in a rat model","volume":"38","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bello, I.I., Omigbodun, A., and Morhason-Bello, I. (2023). Common salt aggravated pathology of testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in adult male Wistar rat. BMC Urol., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12894-023-01371-x"}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/2\/180\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T11:19:42Z","timestamp":1772191182000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/2\/180"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics14020180"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics14020180","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]}}}