{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T00:47:49Z","timestamp":1790642869513,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":222,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771977600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development\u2014Romania","award":["ADER 6.3.7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ADER 6.3.7"]}]},{"name":"Romanian Ministry of Education and Research","award":["PN 23 15 03 02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PN 23 15 03 02"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thorium (Th), a naturally occurring actinide, is gaining renewed attention due to its dual role as a strategic nuclear resource and a potential environmental contaminant. This review critically reassesses thorium valorization pathways by integrating extraction technologies, environmental behavior, toxicological risks, and regulatory constraints. While thorium is primarily recovered as a by-product of rare earth element (REE) processing, conventional hydrometallurgical methods\u2014though mature\u2014generate significant secondary waste and pose environmental challenges. Emerging technologies, such as functionalized adsorbents, membrane systems, and biohydrometallurgy, show promise but remain largely confined to laboratory-scale studies due to scalability and stability issues. A key finding is that thorium\u2019s environmental mobility and toxicological impact are directly influenced by the extraction processes used, creating species with distinct bioavailability and risk profiles. This work highlights the disconnect between high laboratory efficiencies and real-world applicability, emphasizing the need for integrated approaches that consider lifecycle impacts, waste minimization, and occupational safety. We propose a circular economy framework for sustainable thorium management, connecting green primary processing, secondary recovery from industrial residues, smart environmental stewardship, and supportive policy. The review concludes that successful thorium valorization depends not on incremental efficiency gains but on holistic designs that reconcile technological performance with environmental and health safeguards.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14030193","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T13:37:37Z","timestamp":1772026657000},"page":"193","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Thorium Valorization at the Interface of Technology, Risk, and Sustainability"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Geani Teodor","family":"Man","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenics and Isotopic Technologies\u2014ICSI R\u00e2mnicu Valcea, 4th Uzinei Street, 240050 Ramnicu Valcea, Romania"},{"name":"Department of Analytical Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, Bucharest University Centre, Splaiul Independen\u0163ei nr. 313, Sector 6, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreea Maria","family":"Iordache","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenics and Isotopic Technologies\u2014ICSI R\u00e2mnicu Valcea, 4th Uzinei Street, 240050 Ramnicu Valcea, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3442-3760","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana Ionela","family":"Popescu (Stegarus)","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenics and Isotopic Technologies\u2014ICSI R\u00e2mnicu Valcea, 4th Uzinei Street, 240050 Ramnicu Valcea, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7997-0090","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ionela Ramona","family":"Zgavarogea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenics and Isotopic Technologies\u2014ICSI R\u00e2mnicu Valcea, 4th Uzinei Street, 240050 Ramnicu Valcea, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7459-628X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicoleta Anca","family":"\u0218u\u021ban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Natural Sciences, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, Pite\u015fti University Centre, Targul din Vale 1, 110040 Pitesti, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1007\/s11631-023-00670-2","article-title":"Thorium Anomaly on the Lunar Surface and Its Indicative Meaning","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Geochim."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lithos.2018.09.016","article-title":"Thorium Distribution in the Crust: Outcrop and Grain-Scale Perspectives","volume":"320\u2013321","author":"Williams","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lithos"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnucene.2020.103299","article-title":"Evidence and Uncertainty for Uranium and Thorium Abundance: A Review","volume":"124","author":"Degueldre","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. 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