{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T09:17:29Z","timestamp":1785403049298,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775174400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004054","name":"King Abdulaziz University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004054","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02ma4wv74","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although alcohol consumption is prohibited in Saudi Arabia, methanol poisoning outbreaks continue to occur, largely through surrogate or non-beverage alcohols. To date, systematic forensic documentation of methanol-related fatalities in Saudi Arabia remains limited. This study presents a comprehensive post-mortem series of methanol-related deaths investigated in Jeddah and characterizes the demographic patterns, circumstances of death, post-mortem interval (PMI), and methanol distribution across multiple biological matrices. In total, 34 post-mortem cases with toxicologically confirmed methanol exposure were retrospectively examined. Methanol and ethanol levels in blood, urine, vitreous humor, bile, gastric contents, and selected tissues were quantified using a validated headspace gas chromatography\u2013flame ionization detection method. Decedents were aged 18\u201373 years (median, 34.5 years), with a marked predominance of young-to-middle-aged men. PMI ranged 1\u201315 days (median, 2 days), and evidence of putrefaction was present in approximately one-third of the cases. Most deaths were classified as accidental and primarily occurred in private residences. Two distinct outbreak periods (2018 and 2022) were identified; values tended to be higher in 2018, but the differences were not statistically significant. NaF-preserved blood, urine, and vitreous humor were informative in non-decomposed cases, whereas vitreous humor and solid organs, particularly the liver and kidneys, retained quantifiable methanol in putrefied bodies. Ethanol was detected in a minority of cases and was considered a secondary or contributory finding. This study provides an important forensic baseline dataset for methanol-related fatalities in Saudi Arabia and underscores the need for continued surveillance and preventive measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14040308","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T02:06:21Z","timestamp":1775441181000},"page":"308","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Methanol-Related Fatalities in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: A 5-Year Post-Mortem Multi-Matrix Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4488-2194","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed I.","family":"Al-Asmari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Toxicological Analysis Section, Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Division, King Faisal Special Hospital and Research Center, P.O. Box 3354, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Atheer","family":"Zarnoogi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hassan","family":"Alharbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, P.O. Box 21543, Jeddah 21176, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Alghamdi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, P.O. Box 21543, Jeddah 21176, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5755-2461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Faiz","family":"Alsolami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, P.O. Box 21543, Jeddah 21176, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abulnasser E.","family":"Alzahrani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, P.O. Box 21543, Jeddah 21176, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sultan A.","family":"Alahmadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, P.O. Box 21543, Jeddah 21176, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naif H.","family":"Alotaibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khaled A.","family":"Alboug","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forensic Medical Services Center, Ministry of Health, Riyadh 12382, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mansour A.","family":"Alzahrani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poison Control and Forensic Chemistry Center, P.O. Box 21543, Jeddah 21176, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2855-5134","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Torki A.","family":"Zughaibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2012.05.009","article-title":"Fatal Ethyl and Methyl Alcohol-Related Poisoning in Ankara: A Retrospective Analysis of 10,720 Cases Between 2001 and 2011","volume":"20","author":"Celik","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Forensic Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2020.110464","article-title":"The Role of Ethanol in Fatalities in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia","volume":"316","year":"2020","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s11419-021-00588-5","article-title":"Ethyl Glucuronide and Ethyl Sulfate: A Review of Their Roles in Forensic Toxicology Analysis of Alcohol Postmortem","volume":"40","author":"Alsayed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Forensic Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1186\/s13256-022-03600-7","article-title":"Methanol Poisoning Outbreak in Saudi Arabia: A Case Series","volume":"16","author":"Eskandrani","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"e41108","article-title":"Outcome of Methanol Toxicity Outbreak In Saudi Arabia: Case Series Study","volume":"15","author":"Kabli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alhusain, F., Alshalhoub, M., Homaid, M.B., Esba, L.C.A., Alghafees, M., and Al Deeb, M. (2024). Clinical Presentation and Management of Methanol Poisoning Outbreaks in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: A Retrospective Analysis. BMC Emerg. Med., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12873-024-00976-1"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2098","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-52537-y","article-title":"The Trend of Poisonings Before and After the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"14","author":"Behnoush","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjms.2020.05.019","article-title":"A Surge in Methanol Poisoning Amid COVID-19 Pandemic: Why Is This Occurring?","volume":"360","author":"Arasteh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2021.11.026","article-title":"Methanol Poisoning During COVID-19 Pandemic; A Systematic Scoping Review","volume":"52","author":"Arzhangzadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alqurashi, G.I., Alqurashi, F.S., Alhusayni, K.M., Falemban, A.H., Alhindi, Y.Z., Alsanosi, S.M., Alzahrani, A.R., Al-Ghamdi, S.S., and Ayoub, N. (2023). Case Reports Study on Methanol Poisoning in King Abdul Aziz Specialist Hospital, Taif, Saudi Arabia. J. Clin. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12134282"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsps.2024.102163","article-title":"Substance Misuse Disorder in Saudi Arabia: A Comprehensive Examination of Current Demographic Patterns, Trends, and Intervention Requirements","volume":"32","author":"Tobaiqy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Saudi Pharm. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102018","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsps.2024.102018","article-title":"Methanol Intoxication in the Central Region of Saudi Arabia: Five Case Studies","volume":"32","author":"Alnefaie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Saudi Pharm. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.15537\/smj.2015.5.11142","article-title":"Visual and Neurologic Sequelae of Methanol Poisoning in Saudi Arabia","volume":"36","author":"Elkhamary","year":"2015","journal-title":"Saudi Med. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.17712\/nsj.2016.3.20150592","article-title":"Methanol Intoxication with Cerebral Hemorrhage","volume":"21","author":"Aisa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosciences"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2019). Method Validation in Forensic Toxicology (Standard No. ANSI\/ASB Standard 036)."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alcohol.2020.05.006","article-title":"A Syndemic of COVID-19 and Methanol Poisoning in Iran: Time for Iran to Consider Alcohol Use as a Public Health Challenge?","volume":"87","author":"Shokoohi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2021.1895202","article-title":"Death by Hand Sanitizer: Syndemic Methanol Poisoning in the Age of COVID-19","volume":"59","author":"Holzman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"e25434","article-title":"Methanol Poisoning: An Autopsy-Based Study at the Tertiary Care Center of Uttarakhand, India","volume":"14","author":"Vaibhav","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"99","article-title":"Methanol Related Death in National Institute of Forensic Medicine, Hospital Kuala Lumpur: A Case Series","volume":"42","author":"Chng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Malays. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101990","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsps.2024.101990","article-title":"Challenges and Insights: Methamphetamine Analysis in Post-Mortem Putrefied Human Tissues in a Hot Climate","volume":"32","author":"Alasmari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Saudi Pharm. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2022.111280","article-title":"Effects of Post-mortem Interval, Putrefaction, Diabetes, and Location of Death on the Analysis of Ethyl Glucuronide and Ethyl Sulfate as Ethanol Biomarkers of Antemortem Alcohol Consumption","volume":"335","author":"Altowairgi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1093\/anatox\/35.7.524","article-title":"Homicidal Methanol Poisoning in a Child","volume":"35","author":"Beno","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomsia, M., G\u0142az, M., Nowicka, J., Cie\u015bla, J., Sosnowski, M., and Che\u0142mecka, E. (2022). Fatal Methanol Poisoning Caused by Drinking Industrial Alcohol: Silesia Region, Poland, April\u2013June 2022. Toxics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10120800"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS10983J","article-title":"Methanol Intoxication: Distribution in Postmortem Tissues and Fluids Including Vitreous Humor","volume":"30","author":"Donoghue","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/4\/308\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T04:24:10Z","timestamp":1775449450000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/4\/308"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics14040308"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics14040308","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]]}}}