{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T15:08:41Z","timestamp":1785424121877,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776297600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01cwqze88","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013885","name":"Ministry of Health Malaysia","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["JPP-NIH-17-020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPP-NIH-17-020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013885","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["JPP-NIH-17-020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPP-NIH-17-020"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05v8z6a72","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>3-Monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) and glycidyl esters (GEs) are food processing contaminants that raise significant food safety concerns due to their established potential for carcinogenicity. This study aimed to determine the occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs in common Malaysian food items and to evaluate the associated health risks through dietary exposure assessment. A total of 251 samples, consisting of retail products and cooked\/prepared meals, were analysed using GC-MS. The food consumption data were obtained from published national food surveys. Risk was characterised using health-based guidance values (HBGVs) and margin of exposure (MOE), lifetime cancer risk (LCR), and disability-adjusted life year (DALY) estimates. 3-MCPDE was detected in 94.8% of samples (range: ND to 7.77 mg\/kg), while GE was found in 83.3% of samples (range: ND to 9.41 mg\/kg). The highest levels were consistently observed in refined vegetable fats and oil products, specifically shortening (3-MCPDE: 3.53 [IQR 2.76\u20135.16] mg\/kg; GE: 4.78 [IQR 3.52\u20136.14] mg\/kg) and margarine (3-MCPDE: 2.50 [IQR 1.11\u20133.59] mg\/kg; GE: 3.60 [IQR 1.18\u20135.26] mg\/kg). Exposure assessment identified fried rice as the largest contributor to total daily intake (3-MCPDE: 3.16 \u03bcg\/kg BW\/day; GE: 1.36 \u03bcg\/kg BW\/day). Total exposure to 3-MCPDE exceeded the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) established by JECFA by 39.5%, indicating a potential health concern. Low MOE estimates (&lt;10,000) for 3-MCPDE and GE were determined for several food categories, including snacks, kuih-muih, and fried cooked dishes. Chronic GE exposure was estimated to cause up to 6.9 (for mean consumers) and 24.9 (for high consumers) cancer cases per year, with total the DALYs quantified at 124.2 years lost per 100,000 of the population. These data represent a worst-case scenario; however, risks could be minimised through continued surveillance, mitigation strategies by relevant authorities regarding food processing, and informed dietary choices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14040331","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T10:14:46Z","timestamp":1776334486000},"page":"331","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hidden Hazards: Assessment of Exposure Risks from 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol Ester (3-MCPDE) and Glycidyl Ester (GE) Consumption Among Malaysian Consumers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3805-8905","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siti Hajar","family":"Muhamad Rosli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Herbal Medicine Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Setia Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nurul Izzah","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Disease Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Setia Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nurul Hidayati","family":"Surawi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Safety and Quality Programme, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya 62675, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rohana","family":"Ani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Safety and Quality Programme, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya 62675, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nor Kamilah","family":"Mohamad Alwi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Safety and Quality Programme, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya 62675, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2747-951X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ami Fazlin","family":"Syed Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Setia Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100963","DOI":"10.1016\/j.focha.2025.100963","article-title":"Challenges and Mitigation Strategies for Control of 3-MCPDEs and GEs in Edible Oil Processing Industries\u2014A comprehensive review","volume":"7","author":"Singh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem. 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