{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T20:11:53Z","timestamp":1790626313254,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent decades, there has been a worrying increase in the consumption of energy drinks, especially among the young population. These beverages have been linked to effects primarily on the nervous and cardiovascular systems; however, renal consequences remain poorly understood, particularly those associated with long-term consumption. The heterogeneity in consumption patterns, together with variability in consumer profiles, has limited the ability to obtain conclusive and consistent evidence on this issue. Therefore, it is essential to address this topic from a preclinical perspective under controlled experimental conditions. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the available preclinical evidence through a systematic review followed by a meta-analysis. Nineteen studies met the inclusion criteria, with rats being the most commonly used experimental model. Overall, the results show a significant association between energy drink consumption and impaired kidney function, as reflected in elevated levels of serum biomarkers such as creatinine, urea, and uric acid. Among these, serum creatinine (mean Hedges\u2019 g = \u22121.40; 95% confidence interval: \u22122.55 to \u22120.25) and urea (Hedges\u2019 g = \u22121.93; 95% confidence interval: \u22122.99 to \u22120.87) had the highest effect sizes and greater statistical robustness, suggesting a particularly significant impact on kidney function. Although fewer studies reported increased uric acid levels, this parameter may have pathophysiological relevance. Elevated uric acid has been associated with mechanisms such as inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction, which may contribute to the progression of renal damage. Additionally, morphological alterations in glomerular and tubular structures were observed, particularly after prolonged exposure and at high doses. Despite the need for methodological improvements in future research, these findings highlight potential adverse renal effects that should be considered in the development of regulatory policies on energy drink consumption.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14050376","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T09:55:39Z","timestamp":1777370139000},"page":"376","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Renal Effects of Energy Drink Consumption: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Studies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0725-6637","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfredo G.","family":"Casanova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad de Toxicolog\u00eda, Departamento de Fisiolog\u00eda y Farmacolog\u00eda, Universidad de Salamanca (USAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Translational Research on Renal and Cardiovascular Diseases (TRECARD), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6836-6138","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana I.","family":"Morales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad de Toxicolog\u00eda, Departamento de Fisiolog\u00eda y Farmacolog\u00eda, Universidad de Salamanca (USAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Translational Research on Renal and Cardiovascular Diseases (TRECARD), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6273-4005","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura Vicente","family":"Vicente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad de Toxicolog\u00eda, Departamento de Fisiolog\u00eda y Farmacolog\u00eda, Universidad de Salamanca (USAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Translational Research on Renal and Cardiovascular Diseases (TRECARD), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2025, June 04). 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