{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T11:22:19Z","timestamp":1788434539683,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100016056","name":"Minderoo Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100016056","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0289t9g81","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introduction: Intermittent fasting (IF) is becoming increasingly popular as a method of weight management, but it is unknown whether it affects plasticiser intake with resultant changes in glycaemic control in diabetes and vitamin D (VitD) levels; therefore, this study was undertaken in a cohort of control and type-2 diabetic (T2D) subjects during Ramadan time-restricted feeding (TRF). Methods: In T2D subjects (n = 19) and controls (n = 31) undertaking TRF, 24 h urinary levels of phthalate metabolites, bisphenols and serum VitD were determined pre- and post-TRF by liquid chromatography\u2013tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS\/MS). Anthropometric data and glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) were measured. Results: T2D subjects were older (52 versus 36.73 years, p &lt; 0.001), and had higher BMI (36.54 versus 27.67 kg\/m2, p &lt; 0.001), body weight (101.77 versus 80.36 kg, p &lt; 0.001), and HbA1c (8.38 versus 5.46%, p &lt; 0.001) compared to controls, while VitD levels did not differ (60.43 versus 63.95 nmol\/L, p &gt; 0.05). Post-TRF, HbA1c was unchanged in T2D subjects and there was no difference in weight, BMI or VitD. Increased mono-iso-butyl phthalate (MiBP) in T2D subjects (10 versus 6.1 ng\/mL, p = 0.001) and mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) in T2D subjects (37 versus 13 ng\/mL, p = 0.018) and controls (8.3 versus 5.4 ng\/mL, p = 0.007) were observed post-TRF; however, significance was lost after adjusting for baseline differences in age, BMI, and HbA1c using a general linear model (GLM) repeated-measures ANOVA. Despite having no median differences in DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) metabolites pre- and post-TRF, analyses revealed a significant time \u00d7 HbA1c interaction for [mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate, MECPP: F(1,42) = 4.79, p = 0.03, mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate, MEHHP: F(1,42) = 8.56, p = 0.006, mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, MEHP: F(1,42) = 4.64, p = 0.03 and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate, MEOHP: F(1,42) = 8.19, p = 0.007] and time \u00d7 group interactions [MEHHP: F(1,42) = 14.27, p &lt; 0.001, MEHP: F(1,42) = 6.35, p = 0.01 and MEOHP: F(1,42) = 10.30, p = 0.003]. Estimated marginal means (adjusted for age, BMI, HbA1c, and VitD) further confirmed higher concentrations of DEHP metabolites [MECPP, MEHHP, MEHP, and MEOHP] in T2D participants over time compared with controls. Additionally, monomethyl phthalate (MMP) trajectories were significantly influenced by the time \u00d7 group interaction (F(1,42) = 4.28, p = 0.04), with post-TRF elevations observed in T2D subjects. Vitamin D status was observed to modify mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP) and MEP trajectories over time. Conclusion: Ramadan TRF is associated with changes in plasticiser metabolite levels, with estimated increased levels in T2D subjects versus healthy controls. Metabolite levels were influenced by HbA1c and vitamin D, though BMI was not observed to be a contributing factor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14050382","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T15:01:18Z","timestamp":1777474878000},"page":"382","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Exploratory Study on Plasticiser Intake During Intermittent Fasting: Effects on Weight, Glycaemic Control and Vitamin D Levels in Type 2 Diabetes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0183-4683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edwina","family":"Brennan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland-Medical University of Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2510-1580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Priya","family":"Das","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland-Medical University of Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0385-8240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pearl","family":"Wasif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland-Medical University of Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5917-3366","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xianyu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St., Woolloongabba, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jochen","family":"Mueller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St., Woolloongabba, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chang","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St., Woolloongabba, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia"},{"name":"School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2812-9108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean","family":"Varghese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland-Medical University of Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5762-3917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandra","family":"Butler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland-Medical University of Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5887-7257","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen","family":"Atkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland-Medical University of Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naji","family":"Alamuddin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland-Medical University of Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"},{"name":"King Hamad University Hospital, Alsayh, Sheikh Eisa Bin Salman Bridge, Busaiteen 24343, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)01919-X","article-title":"Obesity management as a primary treatment goal for type 2 diabetes: Time to reframe the conversation","volume":"399","author":"Lingvay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-nutr-071816-064634","article-title":"Metabolic Effects of Intermittent Fasting","volume":"37","author":"Patterson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu. 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