{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T17:22:05Z","timestamp":1790011325753,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778457600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health","award":["R16GM149473"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R16GM149473"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Quantifying the mixture effects on humans exposed remains challenging because mixture components are correlated and may act bidirectionally by exhibiting nonlinear dose-response relationships, which may contribute to subclinical organ dysfunction. The liver is a vital organ in the body with broad functions, making it vulnerable to injury as it is the first organ exposed to circulating toxicants, which can precipitate hepatic damage. Our study\u2019s objective was to evaluate the combined and component-specific associations of a multi-chemical exposure mixture of heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins), and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (furans), with liver biomarkers, and to compare concentration-based results with the toxic equivalent (TEQ) potency of the weighted results for dioxin-like compounds. In an unweighted analytic sample of U.S. adults from NHANES 2003\u20132004 with 947 complete cases, we examined heavy metals (cadmium, lead, and mercury), PCBs (12 congeners), dioxins (7 congeners), and furans (10 congeners) in relation to eight liver biomarkers (albumin, ALP, ALT, AST, GGT, LDH, total bilirubin, and total protein). We applied multi-exposure linear regression, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression, quantile g-computation (qgcomp), and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), with parallel TEQ-based models using WHO 2005 TEFs for dioxin-like PCBs, dioxins, and furans. Across mixture methods, the mixture structure was chemically sparse, with a limited set of recurring contributors. Total bilirubin showed the most consistent positive mixture association across qgcomp and BKMR and persisted under TEQ weighting, with prominent PCB- and dioxin-like contributions (notably PCB81\/PCB TEQs and dioxin-related components). Albumin demonstrated inverse mixture patterns in BKMR and TEQ-BKMR, with dioxin-like components (notably Dioxin3 and Dioxin3_TEQ) repeatedly emerging as key drivers. For ALT, ALP, AST, GGT, LDH, and total protein, overall mixture effects were frequently attenuated or null in qgcomp despite structured component weights, indicating bidirectional sub-mixtures and internal counterbalancing. BKMR PIPs similarly concentrated on a small number of dominant predictors (e.g., lead for ALP, mercury for ALT, PCB28 for AST, and cadmium and PCB189 for LDH), while interaction summaries provided limited evidence of stable non-additivity. Using multiple complementary mixture methods, we identified outcome-specific mixture patterns suggesting hepatobiliary vulnerability. TEQ concordance supports toxicological relevance of the dioxin-like axis, while metals and non\u2013dioxin-like mechanisms likely contribute additional pathways.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14050418","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T17:17:42Z","timestamp":1778519862000},"page":"418","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Mixture Effects of Metals, PCBs, Dioxins, and Furans on Liver Function"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6404-8900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bolanle","family":"Akinyemi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Built Environment, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA"},{"name":"Environmental Health and Disease Laboratory, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3195-706X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Obeng-Gyasi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Built Environment, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA"},{"name":"Environmental Health and Disease Laboratory, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.56397\/IST.2025.01.08","article-title":"A Study on Functions of Liver to Sustain a Healthy Liver","volume":"4","author":"Mohajan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Innov. 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