{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T05:04:37Z","timestamp":1780549477540,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779408000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) is an ultrashort-chain perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) characterized by environmental persistence, water solubility, and a growing global presence, resulting primarily from the degradation of fluorinated compounds. Evidence suggests that plant-based foods may represent an underestimated exposure route, with wine emerging as a significant dietary source due to accumulation in soils, irrigation water, and plant uptake. This review provides an updated summary of the evidence on the environmental sources and temporal evolution of TFA in wine, its analytical detection, its contribution to dietary exposure, potential implications for human health, and current regulatory attention. A structured but non-systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed and Scopus, supplemented by European reports and monitoring data, and in accordance with SANRA guidelines. Evidence shows that TFA concentrations in wine derive from widespread environmental sources and have increased over time, from negligible levels before the 1970s to a marked increase in recent decades. Reported concentrations range from tens to several hundred \u00b5g\/L, despite analytical challenges. Exposure estimates indicate that wine may contribute significantly to total dietary TFA intake in regular consumers. Although toxicological data suggest low acute toxicity, uncertainties remain regarding long-term exposure, and regulatory limits for TFA in foods and beverages are lacking.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14060454","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T16:06:08Z","timestamp":1779465968000},"page":"454","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Occurrence of Trifluoroacetic Acid in Wine and Its Relevance for Dietary Exposure and Human Health: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-7801-5979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Moscato","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Specialization in Hygiene, Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies \u201cGF Ingrassia\u201d, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 87, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2203-2785","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Rapisarda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies \u201cGF Ingrassia\u201d, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 87, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7596-2464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margherita","family":"Ferrante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies \u201cGF Ingrassia\u201d, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 87, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7726-9329","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Fiore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies \u201cGF Ingrassia\u201d, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 87, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19925","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.4c06189","article-title":"The Global Threat from the Irreversible Accumulation of Trifluoroacetic Acid (TFA)","volume":"58","author":"Arp","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32250","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.5c07390","article-title":"Trifluoroacetic Acid Concentrations in Consumer Foods","volume":"73","author":"Hawley","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2026.127988","article-title":"Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment and Human Tissue: A Critical Review of Distribution, Exposure Pathways, and Health Risks","volume":"397","author":"Zhang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70160","DOI":"10.1002\/jeq2.70160","article-title":"Formation of trifluoroacetic acid from common trifluoromethyl pesticides in agricultural soils","volume":"55","author":"Johnsen","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2025.466332","article-title":"Reliable and sensitive ultra-short chain per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) analysis in food: A polar reverse-phase chromatography approach","volume":"1761","author":"Schiavone","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110062","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2026.110062","article-title":"Non-target screening and laboratory experiments reveal the transformation products and negligible trifluoroacetic acid formation potential of PFAS pesticides and pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plants","volume":"207","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2026.120038","article-title":"Fluorinated pesticides are a growing source of PFAS contamination in the environment: An Australian perspective on use, fate and ecotoxicity","volume":"314","author":"Alam","year":"2026","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-025-02856-4","article-title":"Contributions of unknown ionizable precursors for perfluoroalkyl acids in the air over a wastewater treatment plant and a landfill","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5c04548","article-title":"Massive Unknown Precursors in Wastewater Treatment Plants: A Significant Source of Ultrashort-Chain Perfluoroalkyl Substances in the Receiving River","volume":"60","author":"Zhang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124848","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2025.124848","article-title":"Source and fate of ultra-short-chain PFAS in water and biota from an AFFF impacted site","volume":"1268","author":"Sture","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28231","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.5c04785","article-title":"Portable Sensor for Detecting Trifluoroacetic Acid in Bottled Water: A Visualization Method Based on Multiple Synergistically Induced Aggregation","volume":"97","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moscato, A., Longo, M.V., Ferrante, M., and Fiore, M. (2025). Trifluoroacetic Acid: A Narrative Review on Physico-Chemical Properties, Exposure Pathways, and Toxicological Concerns. Environments, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments12080277"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-023-03454-y","article-title":"Mammalian toxicity of trifluoroacetate and assessment of human health risks due to environmental exposures","volume":"97","author":"Dekant","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25138","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5c09274","article-title":"Environmental Occurrence, Source Identification, and Health Hazards of Ultrashort-Chain PFAS in the Yangtze River Delta","volume":"59","author":"Miao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2025.140184","article-title":"PFAS in bottled water from China: High prevalence of ultrashort-chain compounds, health risks, and global insights","volume":"499","author":"Quan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.2116\/analsci.28.967","article-title":"Analysis of Nine Food Additives in Red Wine by Ion-Suppression Reversed-Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Using Trifluoroacetic Acid and Ammonium Acetate as Ion-Suppressors","volume":"28","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114653","article-title":"Survey of polar organic micropollutants in German tap waters","volume":"269","author":"Saal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) (2025, December 26). CLH Report: Proposal for Harmonised Classification of Trifluoroacetic Acid (TFA). Germany. Available online: https:\/\/echa.europa.eu\/registry-of-clh-intentions-until-outcome\/-\/dislist\/details\/0b0236e188e6e587."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"German Environment Agency (UBA) (2025, December 26). TFA Emissions from Refrigerants, Pesticides and Pharmaceuticals. UBA Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.umweltbundesamt.de\/sites\/default\/files\/medien\/11850\/publikationen\/167_2023_texte_tfa_eng_v2.pdf."},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_20.1","unstructured":"European Commission (1998). Directive"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_20.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2020\/2184 on the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption. Off. J. Eur. Union, 330, 35-54. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/2020\/2184\/oj."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s41073-019-0064-8","article-title":"SANRA\u2014A scale for the quality assessment of narrative review articles","volume":"4","author":"Baethge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. Integr. Peer Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.08.055","article-title":"Rainwater trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in Guangzhou, South China: Levels, wet deposition fluxes and source implication","volume":"468","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2021.129304","article-title":"Ultrashort-chain perfluoroalkyl substance trifluoroacetate (TFA) in beer and tea\u2014An unintended aqueous extraction","volume":"351","author":"Scheurer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2025.111779","article-title":"Case study: Targeted HPLC-MS\/MS analysis of TFA and other USC-PFAS in beverages and waters from Italy and Asia","volume":"181","author":"Affricano","year":"2026","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1","article-title":"Trifluoroacetate (TFA) in Precipitation and Surface Waters in Switzerland: Trends, Source Attribution, and Budget","volume":"2025","author":"Henne","year":"2025","journal-title":"EGUsphere"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2025.179611","article-title":"From winery by-product to soil improver?\u2014A comprehensive review of grape pomace in agriculture and its effects on soil properties and functions","volume":"982","author":"Buchmann","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2675","DOI":"10.1021\/es990855f","article-title":"Concentrations and Mass Fluxes of Chloroacetic Acids and Trifluoroacetic Acid in Rain and Natural Waters in Switzerland","volume":"34","author":"Berg","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3675","DOI":"10.1021\/es4050264","article-title":"Airborne Trifluoroacetic Acid and Its Fraction from the Degradation of HFC-134a in Beijing, China","volume":"48","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-019-06689-4","article-title":"Distribution characteristics of trifluoroacetic acid in the environments surrounding fluorochemical production plants in Jinan, China","volume":"27","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2014.09.033","article-title":"A 17-fold increase of trifluoroacetic acid in landscape waters of Beijing, China during the last decade","volume":"129","author":"Zhai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2025.144496","article-title":"Approaches towards sensitive and reliable determination of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) from German grass- and farmland soils","volume":"382","author":"Scholl","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2021.462096","article-title":"Residue analytical method for the determination of trifluoroacetic acid and difluoroacetic acid in plant matrices by capillary electrophoresis tandem mass spectrometry (CE-MS\/MS)","volume":"1646","author":"Stuke","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26762","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5c10868","article-title":"Tracking Trifluoroacetate (TFA) through Time: A 78-Year Record from Archived Wines","volume":"59","author":"Freeling","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1080\/19393210.2025.2565203","article-title":"Occurrence and trends of fluorinated pesticides in food commodities marketed in Luxembourg (2011\u20132024)","volume":"18","author":"Schuler","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part B"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11093","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b02211","article-title":"Ultra-Short-Chain Perfluoroalkyl Acids Including Trifluoro-methane Sulfonic Acid in Water Connected to Known and Suspected Point Sources in Sweden","volume":"53","author":"Yeung","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2025, December 10). Pan Europe-Message from the Bottle. Available online: https:\/\/www.pan-europe.info\/sites\/pan-europe.info\/files\/public\/resources\/reports\/Message%20from%20the%20bottle_TFA%20in%20wine%20_23042025.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Mercer, C. (2025, June 11). Traces of \u2018Forever Chemical\u2019 TFA Found in European Wines. Decanter. Available online: https:\/\/www.decanter.com\/wine-news\/traces-of-forever-chemical-tfa-found-in-european-wines-555408\/."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6845","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6c01658","article-title":"Knowns and (mostly) Unknowns of Trifluoroacetic Acid (TFA) Transfers within Agricultural Soil\u2013Plant Systems: Identifying Fundamental Research Needs","volume":"60","author":"Ashworth","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2025.179837","article-title":"Seasonal variation of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in Antarctic ice cores analysed by direct injection non-suppressed ion chromatography-mass spectrometry (nsIC-MS)","volume":"988","author":"Lai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.109061","article-title":"Pesticides can be a substantial source of trifluoroacetate (TFA) to water resources","volume":"193","author":"Joerss","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1080\/10937404.2016.1175981","article-title":"Sources, fates, toxicity, and risks of trifluoroacetic acid and its salts: Relevance to substances regulated under the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols","volume":"19","author":"Solomon","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2004.12.043","article-title":"Monitoring of trifluoroacetic acid concentration in environmental waters in China","volume":"39","author":"Zhang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) (2026, January 11). Registration Dossier: Trifluoroacetic Acid (CAS No. 76 05 1, EC No. 200 929 3). Available online: https:\/\/chem.echa.europa.eu\/100.000.846\/dossier-view\/60cec416-2eda-4340-98bb-abde81256cda\/IUC5-07c52a65-d962-43c1-8011-a425aeae8477_51b54601-d94d-43c8-9d04-4d7b2b93c504."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wipplinger, J., Meusburger, L., Dottolo, E., Galazka, S., Brunner, L., F\u00fcreder, A., Kundratitz, V., Rainer, K., Rauscher-Gabernig, E., and Sarka, M. (2025). The Effects of Trifluoroacetic Acid (TFA) in Humans: A Rapid Review. Life, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/life15121825"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1111\/cod.12059","article-title":"Chemical burns caused by trifluoroacetic acid","volume":"69","author":"Dahlin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Contact Dermat."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1111\/cod.12138","article-title":"Occupational airborne contact dermatitis caused by trifluoroacetic acid in an organic chemistry laboratory","volume":"70","author":"Byun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Contact Dermat."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1263(199701)17:1<1::AID-JAT386>3.0.CO;2-Z","article-title":"Postnatal hepatic and renal consequences of in utero exposure to halothane or its oxidative metabolite trifluoroacetic acid in the rat","volume":"17","author":"Saillenfait","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1021\/tx00029a020","article-title":"Pentahaloethane-based chlorofluorocarbon substitutes and halothane: Correlation of in vivo hepatic protein trifluoroacetylation and urinary trifluoroacetic acid excretion with calculated enthalpies of activation","volume":"5","author":"Harris","year":"1992","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Umweltbundesamt (UBA) (2025, June 01). Ableitung Eines Gesundheitlichen Leitwertes f\u00fcr Trifluoressigsa\u00fcre (TFA). Available online: https:\/\/www.umweltbundesamt.de\/system\/files\/medien\/5620\/dokumente\/ableitung_eines_gesundheitlichen_leitwertes_fuer_trifluoressigsaeure_fuer_uba-homepage-20250731.pdf."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"RIVM (2025, June 01). RIVM-VSP Advies 14434A02\u2013Drinkwaterrichtwaarde Voor Trifluorazijnzuur. Available online: https:\/\/www.rivm.nl\/sites\/default\/files\/2023-03\/DMG-2023-0011%20Bijlage%20Advies%2014434A02_Drinkwaterrichtwaarde%20TFA_07122022.pdf."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"ECHA (2025, June 01). Registry of CLH Intentions Until Outcome-Trifluoroacetic Acid. Available online: https:\/\/echa.europa.eu\/de\/registry-of-clh-intentions-until-outcome\/-\/dislist\/details\/0b0236e188e6e587."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"ECHA (2025, June 01). Registry of CLH Intentions Until Outcome-Sodium Trifluoroacetate and Other Inorganic Salts of Trifluoroacetic Acid. Available online: https:\/\/echa.europa.eu\/registry-of-clh-intentions-until-outcome\/-\/dislist\/."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Burtscher-Schaden, H., Clausing, P., Lyssimachou, A., and Roynel, S. (2024). TFA: The Forever Chemical in the Water We Drink 2024, GLOBAL 2000. Available online: https:\/\/www.pan-europe.info\/sites\/pan-europe.info\/files\/public\/resources\/reports\/Report_TFA_The%20Forever%20Chemical%20%20in%20the%20Water%20We%20Drink.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2025, June 01). TFA: The \u2018Forever Chemical\u2019 in European Mineral Waters-Pesticide Action Network (PAN Europe). Available online: https:\/\/www.pan-europe.info\/resources\/briefings\/2024\/12\/tfa-%E2%80%98forever-chemical%E2%80%99-european-mineral-waters."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/6\/454\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T04:15:43Z","timestamp":1780546543000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/6\/454"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics14060454"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics14060454","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]}}}