{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T20:18:53Z","timestamp":1792613933740,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":232,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781222400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a heterogeneous group of exogenous compounds capable of interfering with hormonal homeostasis and endocrine-regulated physiological processes. Their widespread occurrence in food, water, air, consumer products and industrial materials has raised increasing concern regarding their contribution to chronic disease burden. This review synthesizes current evidence on the exposure characteristics, molecular mechanisms, health effects, and prevention strategies related to major EDC classes, including bisphenol A and phthalates, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, pesticides, and brominated flame retardants. Evidence indicates that EDCs may act through receptor-mediated signaling, altered hormone synthesis and metabolism, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, immune modulation, and epigenetic mechanisms, with effects that may vary according to dose, timing, sex, age, and developmental susceptibility. Reported health outcomes include metabolic and cardiovascular disorders, reproductive dysfunction, hormone-dependent cancers, thyroid disruption, immune dysregulation, and adverse developmental effects. Although complete avoidance is unrealistic, exposure reduction and risk mitigation can be achieved through coordinated individual, clinical, environmental, and regulatory interventions. A life-course approach is essential to limit the health burden associated with endocrine disruption.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14060515","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T08:57:58Z","timestamp":1781513878000},"page":"515","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Implications of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals for Human Health and Effective Methods for Prevention and Reduction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Codru\u021ba-Claudia","family":"Gherman-Lencu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Fundamental Discipline, Department 1, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Victor Babe\u0219 Street, Nr. 8, 400347 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2756-5784","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teodora-Gabriela","family":"Alexescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, 4th Medical Discipline, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Republicii Street, No. 18, 400015 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3111-0339","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristian","family":"Mure\u0219anu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular and Biomolecular Complexes, Department of Molecular and Isotopic Technologies, National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, Donat Street, Nr. 67-103, 400293 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4090-0164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cezara Andreea","family":"Gerdanovics","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, 4th Medical Discipline, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Republicii Street, No. 18, 400015 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mircea-Vasile","family":"Milaciu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, 4th Medical Discipline, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Republicii Street, No. 18, 400015 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7523-4747","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dana-Monica","family":"Iancu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Anatomy, Fundamental Discipline, Department 1, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Victor Babe\u0219 Street, Nr. 8, 400347 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-019-09521-z","article-title":"Endocrine disrupting chemicals: Exposure, effects on human health, mechanism of action, models for testing and strategies for prevention","volume":"21","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. 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