{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:39:23Z","timestamp":1785418763645,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PID2024-160527OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-160527OB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["PID2024-160527OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-160527OB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/023ktd084","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"State of Investigation Agency","award":["AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a prevalent foodborne mycotoxin that has been increasingly recognized as a potential environmental contributor to neurodegenerative diseases. Despite extensive research, a systematic integration of how OTA replicates the specific pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease (AD) is currently lacking. This study provides a comprehensive systematic review of the mechanistic evidence linking OTA exposure to AD-related pathways, utilizing the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) framework to categorize complex toxicological data into biological key events (KEs). A systematic literature search was conducted across PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. A total of 24 peer-reviewed articles were selected for synthesis, comprising 14 in vitro studies and 10 in vivo investigations. The integrated evidence demonstrates that OTA exposure triggers a robust toxicological cascade that replicates several key mechanistic pathways associated with AD in experimental models. Early molecular triggers involve significant redox imbalance and mitochondrial bioenergetic failure, which serve as catalysts for sustained neuroinflammation and microglial activation. In vivo data, from multiple animal models, consistently show that these cellular dysfunctions culminate in structural damage. This systematic integration provides a clearer roadmap for future risk assessment and emphasizes the urgent need for refined regulatory guidelines to protect neurological health from chronic mycotoxin exposure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14070549","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T05:48:16Z","timestamp":1782366496000},"page":"549","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Mechanistic Evidence Mapping Ochratoxin A Toxicity onto Alzheimer\u2019s Disease-Relevant Neurodegenerative Pathways: A Systematic Review of Experimental Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Raquel","family":"Penalva-Olcina","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Food Chemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"},{"name":"Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7850-6186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felipe","family":"Franco-Campos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Food Chemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"},{"name":"Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8752-0951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mercedes","family":"Taroncher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Food Chemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"},{"name":"Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4174-6688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda-Jos\u00e9","family":"Ruiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Food Chemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"},{"name":"Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M\u00f3nica","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Franz\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Food Chemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"},{"name":"Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, Av. Vicent Andr\u00e9s Estell\u00e9s 22, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrantes, F.J. (2024). Cognitive synaptopathy: Synaptic and dendritic spine dysfunction in age-related cognitive disorders. Front. Aging Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2024.1476909"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Yadav, A.K., Shukla, R., and Flora, S.J.S. (2022). Aetiology and pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders. Nanomedical Drug Delivery for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2019.7952","article-title":"Reactive Oxygen Species and Their Impact in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Literature Landscape Analysis","volume":"34","author":"Yeung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2016.05.022","article-title":"Upstream regulators and downstream effectors of NF-\u03baB in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"366","author":"Shi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-016-0769-2","article-title":"Cell cycle inhibition reduces inflammatory responses, neuronal loss, and cognitive deficits induced by hypobaria exposure following traumatic brain injury","volume":"13","author":"Skovira","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1809","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)63436-0","article-title":"Synaptic Changes in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Accompanied by Decreased PSD-95 Fluorescence","volume":"165","author":"Gylys","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2020.09.006","article-title":"Modeling brain development and diseases with human cerebral organoids","volume":"66","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayer, M.G., and Fischer, T. (2024). Microglia at the blood brain barrier in health and disease. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2024.1360195"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2773","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2019.1658570","article-title":"Worldwide contamination of food-crops with mycotoxins: Validity of the widely cited \u2018FAO estimate\u2019 of 25%","volume":"60","author":"Eskola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, R.C., Srivastava, A., and Lall, R. (2018). Ochratoxins and Citrinin. Veterinary Toxicology: Basic and Clinical Principles, Elsevier Inc.. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-811410-0.00072-6"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viegas, C., Pinheiro, A.C., Sabino, R., Viegas, S., Brand\u00e3o, J., and Ver\u00edssimo, C. (2016). Mycotoxins: Genotoxicity Studies and Methodologies. Environmental Mycology in Public Health: Fungi and Mycotoxins Risk Assessment and Management, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-411471-5.00025-9"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1921","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2009.05.003","article-title":"A different kinetic profile of ochratoxin A in mature male rats","volume":"47","author":"Vettorazzi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2013.02.028","article-title":"Combinatorial approach of LC-MS\/MS and LC-TOF-MS for uncovering in vivo kinetics and biotransformation of ochratoxin A in rat","volume":"925","author":"Han","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2019.06.027","article-title":"Determination of Ochratoxin-A in the brain microdialysates and plasma of awake, freely moving rats using ultra high performance liquid chromatography fluorescence detection method","volume":"1125","author":"Kaya","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, T.Y., Khorramshahi, T., Taylor, L.A., Bansal, N.S., Rodriguez, B., and Rey, I.R. (2022). Prevalence of Aspergillus-Derived Mycotoxins (Ochratoxin, Aflatoxin, and Gliotoxin) and Their Distribution in the Urinalysis of ME\/CFS Patients. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19042052"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2021.112261","article-title":"In vitro blood brain barrier exposure to mycotoxins and carotenoids pumpkin extract alters mitochondrial gene expression and oxidative stress","volume":"153","author":"Frangiamone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-019-00370-y","article-title":"Ochratoxin A induces global DNA hypomethylation and oxidative stress in neuronal cells in vitro","volume":"36","author":"Babayan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behrens, M., H\u00fcwel, S., Galla, H.J., and Humpf, H.U. (2015). Blood-brain barrier effects of the fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, 3 acetyldeoxynivalenol, and moniliformin and their transfer to the brain. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0143640"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhat, P.V., Pandareesh, M.D., Khanum, F., and Tamatam, A. (2016). Cytotoxic Effects of Ochratoxin A in Neuro-2a Cells: Role of Oxidative Stress Evidenced by N-acetylcysteine. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.01142"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1515\/bmc-2022-0017","article-title":"Corticosterone potentiates ochratoxin A-induced microglial activation","volume":"13","author":"Chansawhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomol. Concepts"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.4652","article-title":"Investigation of the mechanisms behind ochratoxin A-induced cytotoxicity in human astrocytes and the protective effects of N-acetylcysteine","volume":"44","author":"Chu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-024-03032-w","article-title":"Ochratoxin A induces mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), leading to retinal damage in mice","volume":"44","author":"Fu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2019.05.021","article-title":"Ochratoxin A exerts neurotoxicity in human astrocytes through mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and intracellular calcium overload","volume":"313","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2024.01.009","article-title":"Involvement of pro-inflammatory mediators and cell cycle disruption in neuronal cells induced by gliotoxin and ochratoxin A after individual and combined exposure","volume":"393","author":"Juan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2023.105670","article-title":"Cell cycle and enzymatic activity alterations induced by ROS production in human neuroblastoma cells SH-SY5Y exposed to fumonisin B1, ochratoxin A and their combination","volume":"93","author":"Juan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.2478\/phr-2022-0017","article-title":"Ochratoxin A and Aflatoxin B1 as Factors of Bone Damage and Neurodegeneration Through the Influence on the Immunomodulation Processes of TNF-\u03b1 and IL-6 Concentrations","volume":"80","author":"Radzki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pol. Hyperb. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2022.153376","article-title":"In vitro study of ochratoxin A in the expression of genes associated with neuron survival and viability","volume":"483","author":"Sharma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2024.153738","article-title":"Ochratoxin A stimulates release of IL-1\u03b2, IL\u201318 and CXCL8 from cultured human microglia","volume":"502","author":"Tsilioni","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zingales, V., Piunti, C., Micheli, S., Cimetta, E., and Ruiz, M.J. (2024). Development of an Easy-To-Use Microfluidic System to Assess Dynamic Exposure to Mycotoxins in 3D Culture Models: Evaluation of Ochratoxin A and Patulin Cytotoxicity. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13244167"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brahmi, M., Adli, D.E.H., Kaoudj, I., Alkholifi, F.K., Arabi, W., Sohbi, S., Ziani, K., Kahloula, K., Slimani, M., and Sweilam, S.H. (2025). Chemical Composition, In Vivo, and In Silico Molecular Docking Studies of the Effect of Syzygium aromaticum (Clove) Essential Oil on Ochratoxin A-Induced Acute Neurotoxicity. Plants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants14010130"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2021.112164","article-title":"Oral subchronic exposure to the mycotoxin ochratoxin A induces key pathological features of Parkinson\u2019s disease in mice six months after the end of the treatment","volume":"152","author":"Izco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol. Int. J. Publ. Br. Ind. Biol. Res. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mateo, E., Tonino, R.P.B., Canto, A., Noyola, A.M., Miranda, M., Soria, J.M., and Esparza, M.A.G. (2022). The Neurotoxic Effect of Ochratoxin-A on the Hippocampal Neurogenic Niche of Adult Mouse Brain. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14090624"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.3061","article-title":"Neurotoxic effects of ochratoxin A on the subventricular zone of adult mouse brain","volume":"35","author":"Paradells","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol. JAT"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tschirren, L., Siebenmann, S., and Pietsch, C. (2018). Toxicity of ochratoxin to early life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10070264"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valadas, J., Sachett, A., Marcon, M., Bastos, L.M., and Piato, A. (2021). Ochratoxin A induces behavioral and neurochemical changes in adult zebrafish. BioRxiv Prepr. Serv. Biol., 1\u201323.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.10.18.464868"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.125143","article-title":"Ochratoxin A triggered intracerebral hemorrhage in embryonic zebrafish: Involvement of microRNA-731 and prolactin receptor","volume":"242","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2018.04.003","article-title":"Restorative effect of L-Dopa treatment against Ochratoxin A induced neurotoxicity","volume":"118","author":"Bhat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1769","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-025-03994-5","article-title":"Potential role of ochratoxin A in Parkinson\u2019s disease: A systematic review of current evidence","volume":"99","author":"Beraza","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2020.12.004","article-title":"Role of reactive oxygen species in the progression of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"26","author":"Bhatt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2025.02.004","article-title":"Neurotoxic implications of gliotoxin and ochratoxin A in SH-SY5Y cells: ROS-induced apoptosis and genotoxicity","volume":"405","author":"Juan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2017.10.014","article-title":"Oxidative stress and the amyloid beta peptide in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"14","author":"Cheignon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-020-00897-0","article-title":"Autophagic Pathways to Clear the Tau Aggregates in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"41","author":"Gorantla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-021-01349-z","article-title":"Pro-inflammatory interleukin-6 signaling links cognitive impairments and peripheral metabolic alterations in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"11","author":"Silva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-022-02567-y","article-title":"Hyperphosphorylated tau mediates neuronal death by inducing necroptosis and inflammation in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"19","author":"Dong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.3780006","article-title":"Critical evaluation of ECV304 as a human endothelial cell model defined by genetic analysis and functional responses: A comparison with the human bladder cancer derived epithelial cell line T24\/83","volume":"80","author":"Brown","year":"2000","journal-title":"Lab. Investig. A J. Tech. Methods Pathol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, D., Chen, F., Han, Z., Yin, Z., Ge, X., and Lei, P. (2021). Relationship Between Amyloid-\u03b2 Deposition and Blood\u2013Brain Barrier Dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2021.695479"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25424823251341870","DOI":"10.1177\/25424823251341870","article-title":"Dual impact of neuroinflammation on cognitive and motor impairments in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Fakorede","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis. Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, A., Kukreti, R., Saso, L., and Kukreti, S. (2019). Oxidative Stress: A Key Modulator in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24081583"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0197-0186(03)00146-3","article-title":"Rapid annexin-V labeling in synaptosomes","volume":"44","author":"Gylys","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.RA118.001290","article-title":"Changes in Synaptic Proteins Precede Neurodegeneration Markers in Preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Cerebrospinal Fluid","volume":"18","author":"Alcolea","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Proteom. MCP"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.14283\/jpad.2018.43","article-title":"Revisiting the Cholinergic Hypothesis in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Emerging Evidence from Translational and Clinical Research","volume":"6","author":"Hampel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Prev. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arce-L\u00f3pez, B., Lizarraga, E., Vettorazzi, A., and Gonz\u00e1lez-Pe\u00f1as, E. (2020). Human Biomonitoring of Mycotoxins in Blood, Plasma and Serum in Recent Years: A Review. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12030147"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K\u0151szegi, T., and Po\u00f3r, M. (2016). Ochratoxin A: Molecular Interactions, Mechanisms of Toxicity and Prevention at the Molecular Level. Toxins, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8040111"}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/7\/549\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T04:45:05Z","timestamp":1782535505000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/7\/549"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics14070549"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics14070549","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]}}}