{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T02:00:22Z","timestamp":1791165622116,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chlorfenapyr (CFP) is a widely used pesticide associated with nephrotoxicity through oxidative stress, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. This study investigated the protective effects of limonene (LM) and its nano-liposomal formulation (LM-LNPs) against CFP-induced renal injury in rats. Animals were divided into six groups\u2014control, LM, LM-LNPs, CFP, CFP + LM, and CFP + LM-LNPs\u2014and treated orally for 30 days. CFP exposure resulted in marked renal dysfunction, histopathological and ultrastructural damage, suppression of the NRF2\/HO-1\/NQO1 antioxidant pathway, depletion of endogenous antioxidants excessive generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, lipid peroxidation products, and DNA damage. These changes were accompanied by activation of NF-\u03baB\/COX-2-mediated inflammation, mitochondrial respiratory impairment, disrupted energy metabolism, and induction of apoptosis. Co-treatment with LM significantly ameliorated these alterations, whereas LM-LNPs produced greater improvements in renal function, tissue architecture, redox homeostasis, mitochondrial function, and inflammatory and apoptotic signaling. Immunohistochemical analyses further confirmed enhanced NRF2 expression and reduced NF-\u03baB immunoreactivity in LM-LNP-treated kidneys. Overall, nano-liposomal delivery enhanced the renoprotective efficacy of limonene, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic strategy against pesticide-induced kidney injury.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14080668","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T13:07:33Z","timestamp":1785244053000},"page":"668","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Protective Effects of Limonene and a Nano-Liposomal Limonene Formulation Against Chlorfenapyr-Induced Renal Toxicity: Mechanistic Insights into NRF2\/HO-1 and NF-\u03baB\/COX-2 Signaling, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Apoptosis in Rat Kidneys"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Ekramy M.","family":"Elmorsy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Health Research, Northern Border University, Arar 73213, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3014-9909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amina A.","family":"Farag","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine & Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amal M.","family":"Abdel-Kareim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marwa M. M.","family":"Fawzy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine & Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3831-9159","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed A.","family":"Gebba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy & Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt"},{"name":"Department of Oral Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Applied Science Private University, Amman 11937, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samar Fawzy","family":"Gad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy & Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nashwa E.","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shimaa K.","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Capital University, Cairo 11795, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3057-6698","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamada S.","family":"Salem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ebtssam","family":"Beder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Toukh 13736, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0648-0979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sahar","family":"Soliman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Sam Houston State University, Conroe, TX 77304, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.117502","article-title":"Insecticide chlorfenapyr confers induced toxicity in human cells through mitochondria-dependent pathways of apoptosis","volume":"289","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. 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