{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T14:25:19Z","timestamp":1787149519755,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786924800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009383","name":"Tzu Chi University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["11410200000-16-03B"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11410200000-16-03B"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009383","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["11410200000-16-03B"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11410200000-16-03B"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04ss1bw11","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan","award":["113-2313-B-033-001-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["113-2313-B-033-001-MY3"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Heavy metals (HMs) and rare earth elements (REEs) increasingly co-occur in environmental waste streams and soils, yet their comparative neurotoxic mechanisms and sublethal effects on invertebrate decomposers remain poorly understood. This study used black soldier fly larvae (BSFL, Hermetia illucens) to perform a comparative behavioral and transcriptomic assessment of 23 HMs and 16 REEs across two acute exposure concentrations. High-throughput video tracking and phenomic analysis showed HMs produced broader disruption than REEs, with low-concentration HMs inducing locomotor suppression, thigmotaxis, reduced fractal dimension and entropy, progressing to severe motor inhibition and rigid low-entropy states. In contrast, REEs showed a biphasic profile, shifting from selective locomotor suppression with preserved organization at low concentrations to hyperactive, fragmented, high-entropy movement with increased thigmotaxis at high concentrations. PCA and hierarchical clustering integrated endpoints into four neurobehavioral fingerprints segregating metal class and concentration, with partial overlap of high-concentration REEs with HMs along a shared high-toxicity axis. Transcriptomic profiling showed that cobalt as a representative HM activated DNA damage and cell-cycle pathways, perturbed energy signaling, and suppressed neuroactive ligand\u2013receptor interaction, whereas samarium as a representative REE downregulated xenobiotic metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, glutathione metabolism, and synaptic vesicle cycling. These findings demonstrate distinct concentration-dependent neurotoxic modes of action for HMs and REEs and establish BSFL behavioral phenomics integrated with transcriptomics as a mechanistically informative platform for ecological risk assessment in contaminated waste systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14080729","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T12:01:26Z","timestamp":1786968086000},"page":"729","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparing the Behavioral Impacts of Heavy Metals and Rare Earth Elements on Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3184-4973","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences, Chung Yuan Christian University, No. 200, Zhongbei Rd., Zhongli Dist., Taoyuan 320314, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1572-1644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Minh-Quan","family":"Tran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences, Chung Yuan Christian University, No. 200, Zhongbei Rd., Zhongli Dist., Taoyuan 320314, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, No. 200, Zhongbei Rd., Zhongli Dist., Taoyuan 320314, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petrus","family":"Siregar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences, Chung Yuan Christian University, No. 200, Zhongbei Rd., Zhongli Dist., Taoyuan 320314, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Szu-Chieh","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Tzu Chi University, Hualien 970374, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3411-5685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ming-Der","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Tzu Chi University, Hualien 970374, Taiwan"},{"name":"Center for Herbal Medicine and Natural Products Research, Tzu Chi University, Hualien 970374, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6398-8672","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chung-Der","family":"Hsiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences, Chung Yuan Christian University, No. 200, Zhongbei Rd., Zhongli Dist., Taoyuan 320314, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, No. 200, Zhongbei Rd., Zhongli Dist., Taoyuan 320314, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung City 80708, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan 320314, Taiwan"},{"name":"Research Center of Aquatic Toxicology and Pharmacology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan 320314, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2626","DOI":"10.4236\/ajps.2018.913191","article-title":"Heavy Metals, Metalloids, Their Toxic Effect and Living Systems","volume":"9","author":"Seraj","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. 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