{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T04:18:22Z","timestamp":1787890702000,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787702400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006393","name":"University of Granada","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PPJIB2023-075"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PPJIB2023-075"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006393","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["PPJIB2023-075"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PPJIB2023-075"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04njjy449","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Institute of Health Carlos III","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FI21\/00236"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FI21\/00236"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["FI21\/00236"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FI21\/00236"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ca2c886","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Three-dimensional (3D) printing and bioprinting technologies are increasingly used in tissue engineering and in the development of personalized medical devices with tailored biological and mechanical properties. Despite their advantages, these technologies may involve exposure to chemical compounds with uncertain biological effects, including potential endocrine-disrupting activity. This study aims to evaluate the hormonal activity and cytotoxicity of various materials commonly used for 3D printing technologies, including thermoplastics and synthetic materials (PLA, ABS, PCL, b-TPUe, PVA, PEGDA), and biomaterials (collagen, alginate, hyaluronic acid, agarose, silk fibroin, GelMA, HAMA). Hormonal activity was evaluated using the E-screen assay for estrogenic and anti-estrogenic activity, and the PALM assay for androgenic and anti-androgenic activity. Cytotoxic effects are evaluated by assessing cellular metabolic viability using the MTT assay. No detectable estrogenic, anti-estrogenic, androgenic, or anti-androgenic activity, nor any signs of cytotoxicity, were observed within the experimental conditions analysed. This study represents the first analysis of some specific endocrine-related endpoints of a wide range of 3D printing and bioprinting materials, and should not be interpreted as definitive proof of the complete absence of endocrine activity. Further studies addressing additional toxicological parameters and long-term assessments are required to comprehensively characterize their safety and suitability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14090760","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T15:04:32Z","timestamp":1787756672000},"page":"760","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hormonal Activity of 3D Bioprinting Materials Using the E-Screen and PALM Bioassays"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5237-9815","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alicia","family":"Olivas-Martinez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biosanitaria de Granada (ibs.GRANADA), 18012 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Epidemiolog\u00eda y Salud P\u00fablica (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Radiology and Physical Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisa","family":"Nygren-Jim\u00e9nez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biosanitaria de Granada (ibs.GRANADA), 18012 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Biopathology and Regenerative Medicine Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18100 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"BioFab i3D Lab\u2014Biofabrication and 3D (Bio)printing Laboratory, 18016 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Excellence Research Unit \u201cModeling Nature\u201d (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jose Manuel","family":"Molina-Molina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biosanitaria de Granada (ibs.GRANADA), 18012 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9803-879X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gema","family":"Jim\u00e9nez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biosanitaria de Granada (ibs.GRANADA), 18012 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Biopathology and Regenerative Medicine Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18100 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"BioFab i3D Lab\u2014Biofabrication and 3D (Bio)printing Laboratory, 18016 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Excellence Research Unit \u201cModeling Nature\u201d (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6417-8914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariana F.","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biosanitaria de Granada (ibs.GRANADA), 18012 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Epidemiolog\u00eda y Salud P\u00fablica (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Radiology and Physical Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4996-8261","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Antonio","family":"Marchal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biosanitaria de Granada (ibs.GRANADA), 18012 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Biopathology and Regenerative Medicine Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18100 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"BioFab i3D 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