{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T04:18:17Z","timestamp":1787890697211,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787702400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007414","name":"Qassim University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["QU-APC-2026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QU-APC-2026"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007414","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["QU-APC-2026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QU-APC-2026"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01wsfe280","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coffee is deeply embedded in Saudi culture and is among the most consumed beverages worldwide. However, contamination by toxic heavy metals may represent an underrecognized public health concern, particularly in regions already burdened by diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. This study evaluated concentrations of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni) in 21 commercial coffee samples representing seven product categories marketed in Saudi Arabia. Samples were prepared using EPA Method 3050B acid digestion and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Health risks were assessed through estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) using USEPA exposure parameters and Saudi-specific coffee consumption data. All metals were detected in every sample. Mean concentrations (mg\/kg dry weight) were 1.638 for Pb, 0.560 for Cd, 0.622 for Cr, 0.536 for Ni, and 0.034 for As. Cadmium exceeded the European Union maximum limit for roasted coffee in all samples, while elevated Pb levels were observed in dark roast and Yemeni coffees. Although the overall non-carcinogenic risk remained below the accepted threshold (HI = 0.438), the combined ILCR for As, Cd, and Pb was 5.84 \u00d7 10\u22125. Inclusion of a conservative screening-level chromium contribution, calculated by assuming that all measured total Cr was present as Cr(VI), increased the upper-bound total ILCR to 9.38 \u00d7 10\u22125. This value remained within, but approached the upper boundary of, the risk-management range applied in this study. These findings highlight the need for strengthened monitoring and regulatory control of coffee products in Saudi Arabia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14090761","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T15:04:32Z","timestamp":1787756672000},"page":"761","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Heavy Metal Contamination in Commercial Coffee Products in Saudi Arabia: Prevalence, Carcinogenic and Non-Carcinogenic Risk Assessment, and Implications for Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3866-2304","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Azizah A.","family":"Algreiby","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Qassim University, Buraidah 51452, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1545-6230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suzan","family":"Makawi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Qassim University, Buraidah 51452, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed H.","family":"Bakheit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Al-Neelain University, P.O. Box 1270, Khartoum 12702, Sudan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2591-0946","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdullah H.","family":"Alluhayb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Qassim University, Buraidah 51452, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"FAOSTAT (2026, July 18). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/faostat\/en\/#data\/QCL."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Coffee & Community: Heritage to Innovation","volume":"2","author":"Maspul","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Pemberdaya. Ekon. 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