{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T11:03:24Z","timestamp":1789470204882,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":129,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788134400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Food defense encompasses both the prevention of accidental contamination and the protection of food and water systems against deliberate adulteration. Within this framework, algal toxins deserve greater attention because they occupy a critical intersection of water security, seafood and drinking-water safety, environmental change, supply-chain continuity, and public health preparedness. The novelty of this review lies in reframing algal toxins from a primarily environmental, seafood safety, or clinical toxicology topic into an integrated food and water defense problem. This perspective brings together harmful algal bloom ecology, toxin toxicology, seafood safety, drinking-water protection, preparedness for intentional adulteration, climate change risk, surveillance, and emergency response. Algal toxins can enter the human supply chain through multiple marine and freshwater pathways, are often undetectable by taste, odor, or appearance, may resist routine preparation measures, and can generate high-consequence disruptions even when contamination begins locally. The analysis further shows that prevention depends largely on upstream measures\u2014including environmental surveillance, harvest-area restrictions, source-water protection, testing, supply-chain controls, and rapid public communication\u2014rather than on consumer behavior. Framed in the context of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration\u2019s Intentional Adulteration Rule under the Food Safety Modernization Act, this paper situates algal toxins within a preventive defense model that integrates monitoring, vulnerability reduction, and emergency preparedness. Although most harmful algal bloom events are naturally occurring, algal toxins warrant attention in food-defense planning because they can contaminate seafood and drinking-water systems, complicate detection and attribution, and expose vulnerabilities across interconnected food and water infrastructures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14090779","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T09:48:36Z","timestamp":1788256116000},"page":"779","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Algal Toxins, Food Safety, and Bioterrorism: A Food and Water Defense Perspective"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0129-8350","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonello","family":"Novelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University Institute of Biotechnology of Asturias (IUBA), University of Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Oviedo, 33003 Oviedo, Spain"},{"name":"Institute for Health Research of the Principality of Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4800-9517","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Teresa","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1444-7180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ann M.","family":"Marini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Programs in Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Biology, Graduate School of Nursing, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6636-8161","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Pressman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Social and Medical Science, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6316-3179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A. 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