{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T14:02:25Z","timestamp":1789394545878,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789171200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006302","name":"University of Alcal\u00e1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PIUAH25\/CCS-031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PIUAH25\/CCS-031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006302","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["PIUAH25\/CCS-031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PIUAH25\/CCS-031"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04pmn0e78","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Technology-related trace elements (TTEs), including rare earth elements (REEs), platinum-group elements (PGEs), silver, antimony, bismuth, barium, strontium, vanadium and radionuclide-associated elements, are increasingly relevant to environmental exposure assessment. Children and adolescents are important sentinel populations, and scalp hair offers a non-invasive matrix for multielement analysis. However, a reported hair concentration may combine follicular incorporation, sweat and sebum deposition and external particles, and may also be influenced by collection, washing, cosmetic treatment and analytical contamination. Separately, left-censoring and the statistical treatment of non-detects can materially affect population summaries and comparisons. This critical narrative review integrates paediatric, occupational, environmental and multimatrix evidence through a structured evidence matrix and an element-by-element audit of biomonitoring assessment values. Hair can identify spatial contrasts and source-related patterns, but current evidence generally does not support direct inference of absorbed dose or clinical risk. In long-term occupational REE exposure, urine shows stronger exposure-response performance than blood; paired hair\u2013urine data for thorium discriminate exposed groups without establishing quantitative equivalence; antimony findings vary by exposure setting; and barium biomonitoring equivalents are available for urine and plasma, but not hair. No health-based guidance values validated specifically for paediatric scalp hair were identified for any of the target TTEs. A seven-stage weight-of-evidence framework is proposed, positioning hair as a complementary screening and hypothesis-generating matrix within multimatrix assessment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14090813","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T12:09:51Z","timestamp":1789387791000},"page":"813","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Technology-Related Trace Elements in Paediatric Scalp-Hair Biomonitoring: Biomarker Validity, Environmental Relevance, and Implications for Risk Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5690-5445","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Pe\u00f1a-Fern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Area of Legal and Forensic Medicine, Department of Surgery, Medical and Social Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcal\u00e1, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona, Km. 33.6, 28871 Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4834-289X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Moreno-G\u00f3mez-Toledano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Area of Human Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcal\u00e1, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona, Km. 33.6, 28871 Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9124-5507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Borja","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Alonso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Alcal\u00e1, Crta. Madrid-Barcelona Km, 33.6, 28871 Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0908-8286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M. \u00c1ngeles","family":"Pe\u00f1a Fern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Alcal\u00e1, Crta. Madrid-Barcelona Km, 33.6, 28871 Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"European Parliament, and Council of the European Union (2026, August 07). Regulation (EU) 2024\/1252 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 April 2024 Establishing a Framework for Ensuring a Secure and Sustainable Supply of Critical Raw Materials and Amending Regulations (EU) No 168\/2013, (EU) 2018\/858, (EU) 2018\/1724 and (EU) 2019\/1020, Available online: http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2024\/1252\/oj."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2006). Principles for Evaluating Health Risks in Children Associated with Exposure to Chemicals, World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 237."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe (2015). Human Biomonitoring: Facts and Figures, WHO Regional Office for Europe."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-023-00402-x","article-title":"A State-of-the-Science Review on Metal Biomarkers","volume":"10","author":"Sobel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2008.09.003","article-title":"Non-Invasive Matrices in Human Biomonitoring: A Review","volume":"35","author":"Esteban","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2017.09.017","article-title":"Elemental Hair Analysis: A Review of Procedures and Applications","volume":"992","author":"Pozebon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3915","DOI":"10.1039\/c1cs15021a","article-title":"Hair Analysis as a Biomonitor for Toxicology, Disease and Health Status","volume":"40","author":"Kempson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/0300-483X(95)03018-B","article-title":"Use of Human Hair as a Biomarker in the Assessment of Exposure to Pollutants in Occupational and Environmental Settings","volume":"101","author":"Bencko","year":"1995","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"067021","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP1239","article-title":"Major Limitations in Using Element Concentrations in Hair as Biomarkers of Exposure to Toxic and Essential Trace Elements in Children","volume":"125","author":"Kippler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2008.06.002","article-title":"Evaluation of the Use of Human Hair for Biomonitoring the Deficiency of Essential and Exposure to Toxic Elements","volume":"405","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2019.07.006","article-title":"Trace Element Biomonitoring in Hair and Blood of Populations Living in Polluted Regions of Kazakhstan","volume":"56","author":"Semenova","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.02.004","article-title":"Human Exposures to Rare Earth Elements: Present Knowledge and Research Prospects","volume":"171","author":"Pagano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brouziotis, A.A., Giarra, A., Libralato, G., Pagano, G., Guida, M., and Trifuoggi, M. (2022). Toxicity of Rare Earth Elements: An Overview on Human Health Impact. Front. Environ. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2022.948041"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2517","DOI":"10.1081\/ESE-200026332","article-title":"Distribution Characteristics of Rare Earth Elements in Children\u2019s Scalp Hair from a Rare Earths Mining Area in Southern China","volume":"39","author":"Tong","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health A"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2013.05.031","article-title":"Rare Earth Elements in Human Hair from a Mining Area of China","volume":"96","author":"Wei","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1016\/S1002-0721(16)60148-5","article-title":"Distribution of Rare Earth Elements in Agricultural Soil and Human Body (Scalp Hair and Urine) near Smelting and Mining Areas of Hezhang, China","volume":"34","author":"Meryem","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Rare Earths"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2023.108177","article-title":"Hair-Biomonitoring Assessment of Rare-Earth-Element Exposure in Residents of the Largest Rare-Earth Mining and Smelting Area of China","volume":"179","author":"Dai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2024.120121","article-title":"Urine Is Better for Rare Earth Elements Biomonitoring in Long-Term Exposed Population: An Exposure\u2013Response Relationship Study","volume":"263","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zieli\u0144ska-Dawidziak, M., Czlapka-Matyasik, M., Wojciechowska, Z., Proch, J., Kowalski, R., and Niedzielski, P. (2022). Rare Earth Elements Accumulation in the Hair of Malagasy Children and Adolescents in Relation to Their Age and Nutritional Status. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19010455"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belisheva, N.K., and Drogobuzhskaya, S.V. (2024). Rare Earth Element Content in Hair Samples of Children Living in the Vicinity of the Kola Peninsula Mining Site and Nervous System Diseases. Biology, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202407.1306.v1"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.03.046","article-title":"A Pilot Study on the Association between Rare Earth Elements in Maternal Hair and the Risk of Neural Tube Defects in North China","volume":"226","author":"Huo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2014.03.005","article-title":"Fate of Platinum Metals in the Environment","volume":"28","author":"Pawlak","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.164777","article-title":"Occurrence of Palladium and Platinum in Human Scalp Hair of Adolescents Living in Urban and Industrial Sites","volume":"892","author":"Varrica","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11786302241271553","DOI":"10.1177\/11786302241271553","article-title":"Rare Earth and Platinum Group Elements in Sub-Saharan Africa and Global Health: The Dark Side of the Burgeoning of Technology","volume":"18","author":"Frazzoli","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Health Insights"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pe\u00f1a-Fern\u00e1ndez, A., Higueras, M., Valiente, R., and Lobo-Bedmar, M.C. (2025). Biomonitoring of Silver in Children and Adolescents from Alcal\u00e1 de Henares (Spain): Assessing Potential Health Risks from Topsoil Contamination. Toxics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13121026"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3529","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-023-03964-x","article-title":"Biomonitoring of Potentially Toxic Elements in Dyed Hairs and Its Correlation with Variables of Interest","volume":"202","author":"Galizia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.05.267","article-title":"Antimony Exposure and Speciation in Human Biomarkers near an Active Mining Area in Hunan, China","volume":"640\u2013641","author":"Ye","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/s004200050273","article-title":"Human Biomonitoring of Antimony","volume":"71","author":"Gebel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2011.604257","article-title":"Human Exposure to Antimony. III. Contents in Some Human Excreted Biofluids (Urine, Milk, Saliva)","volume":"43","author":"Filella","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pe\u00f1a-Fern\u00e1ndez, A., Valiente, R., Higueras, M., Moreno-G\u00f3mez-Toledano, R., and Lobo-Bedmar, M.C. (2026). Ba\u2013Sr\u2013V as Geogenic and Traffic Tracers in Paediatric Hair from Urban\u2013Industrial Spain, with Co-Located Topsoil Vanadium. Toxics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14030268"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2017.03.022","article-title":"Development of Biomonitoring Equivalents for Barium in Urine and Plasma for Interpreting Human Biomonitoring Data","volume":"86","author":"Poddalgoda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68476","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-20507-4","article-title":"Exposure to Barium and Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents: Results from the 2003\u20132018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey","volume":"29","author":"Zeng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Camacho-delaCruz, A.A., Mendoza-Cano, O., Trujillo, X., Huerta, M., R\u00edos-Silva, M., Gonzalez-Curiel, I.E., Lugo-Radillo, A., Romo-Garc\u00eda, M.F., Cuevas-Arellano, H.B., and Hilerio-L\u00f3pez, \u00c1.G. (2025). The Screening and Correlation of Trace Elements in the Blood and Urine of School-Aged Children (5\u201312 Years): A Pilot Biomonitoring Study. Toxics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13060431"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.10.011","article-title":"Influence of Diet in Urinary Levels of Metals in a Biomonitoring Study of a Child Population of the Valencian Region (Spain)","volume":"618","author":"Conchado","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radmp.2022.03.001","article-title":"Determination of Thorium in the Hair and Urine of Workers and the Public in a Rare Earth Mining Area","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Radiat. Med. Prot."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pe\u00f1a-Fern\u00e1ndez, A., Higueras, M., Valiente, R., and Lobo-Bedmar, M.C. (2026). Rare Earth Elements and Technology-Related Trace Metals in Paediatric Scalp Hair: A 2001 Urban Baseline from Spain. J. Xenobiot., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/jox16010038"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-025-02528-3","article-title":"Using Hair as a Non-Invasive Matrix to Assess the Exposure of E-Waste Workers to Selected Heavy Metals in Pakistan","volume":"47","author":"Akram","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-020-00277-2","article-title":"Minimally Invasive Biospecimen Collection for Exposome Research in Children\u2019s Health","volume":"7","author":"Petrick","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S115","DOI":"10.1067\/mjd.2003.277","article-title":"Current Research on Ethnic Hair","volume":"48","author":"Franbourg","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23316","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.23316","article-title":"The Biology of Human Hair: A Multidisciplinary Review","volume":"32","author":"Koch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1089\/bio.2019.0092","article-title":"Towards Harmonized Biobanking for Biomonitoring: A Comparison of Human Biomonitoring-Related and Clinical Biorepositories","volume":"18","author":"Lermen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biopreserv. Biobank."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4348","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-025-04968-5","article-title":"Optimisation of a Sample Preparation Method for the Determination of Multi-Elemental Compositions in Human Hair by Triple Quadrupole ICP-MS Analysis","volume":"204","author":"Runkel","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(01)01578-1","article-title":"Removal of Exogenously Bound Elements from Human Hair by Various Washing Procedures and Determination by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry","volume":"455","author":"Morton","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1038\/s41370-018-0112-3","article-title":"A New Washing Procedure for Inorganic Element Analysis of Hair","volume":"29","author":"Verrey","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"David, G.K., Hunter, A.H., Moromizato, K.H., Allen, C.M., Wheatley, R., von Hippel, F.A., Niehaus, A.C., and Wilson, R.S. (2023). Pre-Cleaning of Hair Is Not Beneficial in LA-ICP-MS Studies of Chronic Metal Exposure. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0289635"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2007.11.013","article-title":"Trends in Speciation Analysis of Vanadium in Environmental Samples and Biological Fluids\u2014A Review","volume":"607","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3513","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-025-05859-3","article-title":"Quality Assurance and Quality Control for Human Biomonitoring Data\u2014Focus on Matrix Reference Materials","volume":"417","author":"Ricci","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2005.04.020","article-title":"Metal and Metalloid Multi-Elementary ICP-MS Validation in Whole Blood, Plasma, Urine and Hair: Reference Values","volume":"153","author":"Mahieu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2009.11.056","article-title":"Validation of a Method to Quantify Chromium, Cadmium, Manganese, Nickel and Lead in Human Whole Blood, Urine, Saliva and Hair Samples by Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry","volume":"659","author":"Olmedo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Helsel, D.R. (2012). Statistics for Censored Environmental Data Using Minitab and R, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118162729"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2016.07.004","article-title":"Trace Element Biomonitoring in Hair of Schoolchildren Living near a Toxic-Waste Site","volume":"39","author":"Drobyshev","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batyrova, G., Kononets, V., Umarova, G., Taskozhina, G., Umarov, Y., Issanguzhina, Z., Kudabayeva, K., and Batyrov, R. (2025). Trace Metal and Metalloid Profiles in Hair Samples from Children in the Oil-Producing Region of Kazakhstan. Toxics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13070522"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-026-03045-7","article-title":"Hair Biomonitoring Reveals Spatial Heterogeneity of Multielement Exposure in Bogot\u00e1 Schoolchildren","volume":"48","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2014.05.011","article-title":"\u201cReference Values\u201d of Trace Elements in the Hair of a Sample Group of Spanish Children (Aged 6\u20139 Years)\u2014Are Urban Topsoils a Source of Contamination?","volume":"38","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2014.03.010","article-title":"Monitoring Lead in Hair of Children and Adolescents of Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Spain: A Study by Gender and Residential Areas","volume":"72","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21299","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-7352-3","article-title":"Evaluating the Effect of Age and Area of Residence in the Metal and Metalloid Contents in Human Hair and Urban Topsoils","volume":"23","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23666","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-9984-3","article-title":"Effects of Sex on the Levels of Metals and Metalloids in the Hair of a Group of Healthy Spanish Adolescents (13 to 16 Years Old)","volume":"24","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2016.12.010","article-title":"Reference Levels of Trace Elements in Hair Samples from Children and Adolescents in Madrid, Spain","volume":"43","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruiz, R., Estevan, C., Est\u00e9vez, J., Alcaide, C., Sogorb, M.A., and Vilanova, E. (2023). Reference Values on Children\u2019s Hair for 28 Elements Based on a Pilot Study in a Representative Non-Contaminated Local Area. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24098127"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics2010001","article-title":"Levels of Metals in Hair in Childhood: Preliminary Associations with Neuropsychological Behaviors","volume":"2","author":"Torrente","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxics"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esplugas, R., Mari, M., Marqu\u00e8s, M., Schuhmacher, M., Domingo, J.L., and Nadal, M. (2019). Biomonitoring of Trace Elements in Hair of Schoolchildren Living Near a Hazardous Waste Incinerator\u2014A 20 Years Follow-Up. Toxics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics7040052"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1080\/10408444.2022.2095979","article-title":"Biomarkers of Environmental Manganese Exposure","volume":"52","author":"Shilnikova","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1007\/s004200050410","article-title":"Biomonitoring of Manganese in Blood, Urine and Axillary Hair Following Low-Dose Exposure during the Manufacture of Dry Cell Batteries","volume":"72","author":"Bader","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113622","article-title":"Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU)\u2014Strategy to Derive Human Biomonitoring Guidance Values for Health Risk Assessment","volume":"230","author":"Apel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2023.114139","article-title":"How to Use Human Biomonitoring in Chemical Risk Assessment: Methodological Aspects, Recommendations and Lessons Learned from HBM4EU","volume":"249","author":"Santonen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2024.07.001","article-title":"A Review of Health Canada\u2019s Progress on Human Biomonitoring-Based Risk Assessments and the Path Forward","volume":"399","author":"Poddalgoda","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2011.06.007","article-title":"Update of the Reference and HBM Values Derived by the German Human Biomonitoring Commission","volume":"215","author":"Schulz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2010.04.002","article-title":"Reassessment of Critical Lead Effects by the German Human Biomonitoring Commission Results in Suspension of the Human Biomonitoring Values for Lead in Blood of Children and Adults","volume":"213","author":"Wilhelm","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dom\u00ednguez-Morueco, N., Pedraza-D\u00edaz, S., Gonz\u00e1lez-Caballero, M.C., Esteban-L\u00f3pez, M., de Alba-Gonz\u00e1lez, M., Katsonouri, A., Santonen, T., Ca\u00f1as-Portilla, A., and Casta\u00f1o, A. (2022). Methylmercury Risk Assessment Based on European Human Biomonitoring Data. Toxics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10080427"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7046","article-title":"Hair Mercury Levels in U.S. Children and Women of Childbearing Age: Reference Range Data from NHANES 1999\u20132000","volume":"112","author":"McDowell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"(2010). Defining, Establishing, and Verifying Reference Intervals in the Clinical Laboratory; Approved Guideline, 3rd ed. (Standard No. CLSI EP28-A3c)."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.106337","article-title":"Human Biomonitoring Guidance Values Derived for Cadmium and Its Compounds","volume":"147","author":"Lamkarkach","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"German Environment Agency (2026, August 06). Reference and HBM Values, Available online: https:\/\/www.umweltbundesamt.de\/en\/topics\/health\/commissions-working-groups\/human-biomonitoring-commission\/reference-hbm-values."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Permanent Senate Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area (2025). List of MAK and BAT Values 2025. Maximum Concentrations at the Workplace and Assessment Values in Biological Material, German Research Foundation. Report 61."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Health and Safety Executive (2026, August 06). Biological Monitoring Guidance Values, Available online: https:\/\/books.hse.gov.uk\/biological-monitoring-guidance-values."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Health and Safety Executive (2026, August 06). Antimony (Urine), Available online: https:\/\/books.hse.gov.uk\/product\/9780717667642."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Health Canada (2026, August 06). Science Approach Document: Biomonitoring-Based Approach 2 for Barium-Containing Substances, Molybdenum-Containing Substances, Silver-Containing Substances, Thallium-Containing Substances and Inorganic Tin-Containing Substances, Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/en\/environment-climate-change\/services\/evaluating-existing-substances\/science-approach-document-biomonitoring-based-approach-2barium-containing-substances-molybdenum-containing-s.html."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Environment and Climate Change Canada, and Health Canada (2026, August 06). Screening Assessment: Silver and Its Compounds, Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/en\/environment-climate-change\/services\/evaluating-existing-substances\/screening-assessment-silver-compounds.html."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2020.104672","article-title":"Derivation of Biomonitoring Equivalents (BE Values) for Bismuth","volume":"114","author":"Poddalgoda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2026, August 06). Public Health Statement for Uranium, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/toxprofiles\/tp150-c1-b.pdf."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2026, August 06). Toxicological Profile for Uranium, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/toxprofiles\/tp150.pdf."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/9\/813\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T13:02:26Z","timestamp":1789390946000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/9\/813"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics14090813"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics14090813","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]]}}}