{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T18:58:40Z","timestamp":1790881120375,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789430400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007835","name":"Silesian University of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["08\/020\/BKM26\/0059"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["08\/020\/BKM26\/0059"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007835","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007835","name":"Silesian University of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32\/014\/SDU\/10-27-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32\/014\/SDU\/10-27-21"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007835","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["08\/020\/BKM26\/0059"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["08\/020\/BKM26\/0059"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02dyjk442","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["32\/014\/SDU\/10-27-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32\/014\/SDU\/10-27-21"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02dyjk442","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001711","name":"Swiss National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IZKSZ2_218570"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IZKSZ2_218570"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001711","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["IZKSZ2_218570"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IZKSZ2_218570"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00yjd3n13","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Microplastics (MPs) in long-distance trains remain undercharacterized despite prolonged exposure of passengers and staff in confined environments. In this study, settled dust was collected from four distinct coach classes on an Indian railway to establish baseline MPs occurrence, morphology, polymer composition, relative load, and exposure-relevant particle intake. Samples were processed via oxidative digestion, density separation, and stereomicroscopy for particle quantification and morphological characterization. Polymer identity was assessed using micro-Raman spectroscopy, and human exposure was evaluated using estimated trip (EDITrip) and annual (EAI) intake models. MPs were detected in all four sampled coach composites, with coach-level concentrations ranging from 925 to 3755 MPs\/g. Among the four sampled coaches, the 1AC (first-class sleeper air-conditioned) coach had the highest measured concentration. Fibers (72%), transparent particles (61%), and polyester dominated, suggesting mixed textile and interior sources. The Relative Load Ratio (RLR) reached 4.06 in 1AC, compared to the lowest-abundance general unreserved coach (GL). Deterministic EDITrip ranged from 5.78 to 388.35 particles\/trip, with maximum intake observed for toddlers on full-route 1AC journeys. Monte Carlo simulations confirmed intake increases with travel duration and frequency. These findings highlight long-distance railway coaches as overlooked MPs reservoirs, emphasize the need for improved dust control, ventilation management, and lower-shedding interior materials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14090822","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T18:23:53Z","timestamp":1789496633000},"page":"822","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Microplastics in Settled Dust from Indian Long-Distance Railway Coaches: Baseline Occurrence, Relative Load, and Scenario-Based Ingestion Estimates"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5013-3141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nisarg","family":"Mehta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Air Protection, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 22B Konarskiego St., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2078-137X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Empa, Laboratory for Building Energy Materials and Components, \u00dcberlandstrasse 129, 8600 D\u00fcbendorf, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Z\u00fcrich, Laura-Hezner-Weg 7, 8093 Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8324-1210","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Kozielska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Air Protection, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 22B Konarskiego St., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b05297","article-title":"Are We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic Debris","volume":"53","author":"Hartmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1094559","article-title":"Lost at Sea: Where Is All the Plastic?","volume":"304","author":"Thompson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1126\/science.175.4027.1240","article-title":"Plastics on the Sargasso Sea Surface","volume":"175","author":"Carpenter","year":"1972","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202205713","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.202205713","article-title":"Microplastics and their Additives in the Indoor Environment","volume":"61","author":"Salthammer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2016.12.013","article-title":"A first overview of textile fibers, including microplastics, in indoor and outdoor environments","volume":"221","author":"Dris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150984","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.150984","article-title":"Microplastic occurrence in settled indoor dust in schools","volume":"807","author":"Nematollahi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155256","article-title":"Microplastics in dust from different indoor environments","volume":"833","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haque, M.R., Ahmed, W., Rayhan, M.R.I., and Rahman, M.M. (2024). Microplastics in indoor dust at Dhaka city: Unveiling the unseen contaminants within our homes. Front. Environ. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2024.1437866"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113065","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2025.113065","article-title":"Characterization and exposure assessment of indoor microplastics in hospital indoor settled dust: First insides from India","volume":"279","author":"Mehta","year":"2025","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8670","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-45054-w","article-title":"Simulating human exposure to indoor airborne microplastics using a Breathing Thermal Manikin","volume":"9","author":"Vianello","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e36449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e36449","article-title":"Human inhalation exposure assessment of the airborne microplastics from indoor deposited dusts during winter in Dhaka, Bangladesh","volume":"10","author":"Islam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.emcon.2023.100274","article-title":"A systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis of sources and analytical approaches of indoor microplastics","volume":"10","author":"Mehta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Contam."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehta, N., Wang, J., and Kozielska, B. (2026). Assessment of Indoor Microplastics in Settled Dust at a High-Traffic Transit Building: Characterization, Abundance, Polymer Profiling, and Ingestion Exposure. J. Environ. Sci., in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2026.04.007"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehta, N., and Kozielska, B. (2026). Disposable Plasticware Production as a Source of Microplastics in Settled Dust: Quantification, Characterization, and Exposure Assessment. Atmosphere, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos17030282"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2024.123543","article-title":"Characterization of microplastics in outdoor and indoor air in Ranchi, Jharkhand, India: First insights from the region","volume":"346","author":"Nandi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18320","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-025-36753-1","article-title":"Microplastic pollution in the street dust of Delhi: A study on seasonal variations","volume":"32","author":"Singh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.154651","article-title":"Occurrence and exposure assessment of microplastics in indoor dusts of buildings with different applications in Bushehr and Shiraz cities, Iran","volume":"829","author":"Kashfi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20150202","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2015.0202","article-title":"Principal component analysis: A review and recent developments","volume":"374","author":"Jolliffe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petroody, S.S.A., Hashemi, S.H., \u0160krlep, L., Mu\u0161i\u010d, B., Van Gestel, C.A.M., and \u0160kapin, A.S. (2023). UV Light Causes Structural Changes in Microplastics Exposed in Bio-Solids. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15214322"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c07035","article-title":"Photo-oxidation of Micro- and Nanoplastics: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Effects in Environments","volume":"58","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105411","article-title":"Atmospheric microplastic deposition in an urban environment and an evaluation of transport","volume":"136","author":"Wright","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8001","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c00650","article-title":"Formation of Fiber Fragments during Abrasion of Polyester Textiles","volume":"55","author":"Cai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.118465","article-title":"Air conditioner filters become sinks and sources of indoor microplastics fibers","volume":"292","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1039\/D4EA00139G","article-title":"Microplastics in settled dust from university indoor environments: Puerto Colombia, Colombia","volume":"5","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e15901","article-title":"Characterization and quantification of microplastics in indoor environments","volume":"9","author":"Zhai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160aravanja, A., Pu\u0161i\u0107, T., and Dekani\u0107, T. (2022). Microplastics in Wastewater by Washing Polyester Fabrics. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15072683"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2016.01.006","article-title":"Synthetic fibers in atmospheric fallout: A source of microplastics in the environment?","volume":"104","author":"Dris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.162193","article-title":"There\u2019s something in the air: A review of sources, prevalence and behaviour of microplastics in the atmosphere","volume":"874","author":"Rauert","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2016.09.025","article-title":"Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions","volume":"112","author":"Napper","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4841","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-61146-4","article-title":"Microplastics generated when opening plastic packaging","volume":"10","author":"Sobhani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.123660","article-title":"Contamination issues as a challenge in quality control and quality assurance in microplastics analytics","volume":"403","author":"Prata","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2024.135156","article-title":"PM10-bound microplastics and trace metals: A public health insight from the Korean subway and indoor environments","volume":"477","author":"Roy","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2022.107359","article-title":"Microplastics in indoor environment: Sources, mitigation and fate","volume":"10","author":"Kacprzak","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.116790","article-title":"Occurrence of microplastic in livestock and poultry manure in South China","volume":"277","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2213","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-025-01764-x","article-title":"Microplastics in the indoor air of subway station in Istanbul","volume":"18","author":"Ayvaz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Air Qual. Atmos. Health"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2022.119707","article-title":"Airborne microplastic particle concentrations and characterization in indoor urban microenvironments","volume":"308","author":"Karanasiou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.117064","article-title":"Quantification and exposure assessment of microplastics in Australian indoor house dust","volume":"283","author":"Soltani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2021.108562","article-title":"Microplastics in the school classrooms of Shiraz, Iran","volume":"207","author":"Abbasi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.164292","article-title":"Microplastics in Australian indoor air: Abundance, characteristics, and implications for human exposure","volume":"889","author":"Perera","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.11.043","article-title":"Airborne microplastics: Consequences to human health?","volume":"234","author":"Prata","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16676","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c05885","article-title":"Airborne Microplastics in Indoor and Outdoor Environments of a Developing Country in South Asia: Abundance, Distribution, Morphology, and Possible Sources","volume":"56","author":"Perera","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coesh.2017.10.002","article-title":"Microplastics in air: Are we breathing it in?","volume":"1","author":"Gasperi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2015.09.026","article-title":"A critical assessment of visual identification of marine microplastic using Raman spectroscopy for analysis improvement","volume":"100","author":"Lenz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8377","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-016-9956-3","article-title":"Analysis of environmental microplastics by vibrational microspectroscopy: FTIR, Raman or both?","volume":"408","author":"Fischer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6633","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-43023-x","article-title":"The contribution of washing processes of synthetic clothes to microplastic pollution","volume":"9","author":"Cocca","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6530","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c00087","article-title":"Microplastic Fallout in Different Indoor Environments","volume":"54","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3288","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b06892","article-title":"Microfiber Release to Water, Via Laundering, and to Air, via Everyday Use: A Comparison between Polyester Clothing with Differing Textile Parameters","volume":"54","author":"Cocca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.04.024","article-title":"Widespread distribution of PET and PC microplastics in dust in urban China and their estimated human exposure","volume":"128","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124631","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2024.124631","article-title":"Appraisal of microplastic pollution and its related risks for urban indoor environment in Bangladesh using machine learning and diverse risk evolution indices","volume":"360","author":"Netema","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2025.126831","article-title":"Unveiling the hidden pollutants in the indoor environment: Focus on microplastic pollution and its related risks in the educational institutions of megacity, Bangladesh","volume":"383","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"100122","article-title":"Assessment of potentially toxic metals adsorbed on small macroplastics in urban roadside soils in southeastern Nigeria","volume":"7","author":"Enyoh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32345-0","article-title":"The Lancet Commission on pollution and health","volume":"391","author":"Landrigan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9138","DOI":"10.1021\/es302004w","article-title":"Occurrence of Eight Bisphenol Analogues in Indoor Dust from the United States and Several Asian Countries: Implications for Human Exposure","volume":"46","author":"Liao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.10.110","article-title":"Preliminary study of the source apportionment and diversity of microplastics: Taking floating microplastics in the South China Sea as an example","volume":"245","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1038\/163688a0","article-title":"Measurement of Diversity","volume":"163","author":"Simpson","year":"1949","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/9\/822\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T18:00:42Z","timestamp":1790877642000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/9\/822"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics14090822"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics14090822","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]}}}