{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T18:59:39Z","timestamp":1790881179972,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789862400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2026YFE0156400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2026YFE0156400"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Talent Recruitment Program","award":["2422999023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2422999023"]}]},{"name":"Provincial Undergraduate Training Program on Innovation and Entrepreneurship","award":["S202610626113"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S202610626113"]}]},{"name":"Provincial Undergraduate Training Program on Innovation and Entrepreneurship","award":["S202510626039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S202510626039"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010097","name":"China\u2019s Ministry of Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P25U51006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P25U51006"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010097","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["P25U51006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P25U51006"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/035vmht26","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Sichuan Agricultural University Dual-Branch Plan Special Project of Discipline Construction","award":["2025ZYTS008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025ZYTS008"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0388c3403","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2025ZYTS008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025ZYTS008"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0388c3403","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Research topics on political participation and policy deliberation","award":["025\/2621996003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["025\/2621996003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ocean acidification, driven by the absorption of anthropogenic carbon dioxide into seawater, poses a significant threat to marine environments and biodiversity. This comprehensive review examines the specific impacts of acidification on the reproductive physiology of fish, integrating recent advances in our understanding of gonadal development, gametogenesis, and early embryonic development. We synthesize current findings on how altered carbonate chemistry disturbs the reproductive system from gametogenesis and fertilization to larval development and beyond. Our analysis reveals that ocean acidification affects multiple physiological pathways, including disruption of the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013gonadal (HPG) axis, impairment of calcium signaling, and alterations in sex hormone synthesis. We propose a mechanistic model in which pH reduction may weaken Dax1-mediated repression of P450arom transcription, thereby dysregulating aromatase activity and leading to sex hormone imbalance that impairs gonadal development; however, this proposed mechanism requires direct experimental validation under ocean acidification, as the net outcome may be modulated by additional regulatory layers such as epigenetic modifications and other transcription factors. Furthermore, we discuss the synergistic effects of ocean acidification with temperature elevation and other stressors, which often exacerbate reproductive dysfunction. This review concludes that no multi-generational study has yet evaluated HPG axis disruption to population-level recruitment failure, a critical gap for fishery resource assessment. We emphasize the critical importance of multi-generational and field-based studies to fully understand these impacts, which is essential for forecasting consequences for global marine biodiversity and the long-term sustainability of fisheries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics14090834","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T17:59:41Z","timestamp":1790877581000},"page":"834","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["How Ocean Acidification Makes Marine Fish Reproduction Vulnerable: Physiological Mechanisms and Ecosystem Consequences"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Zihao","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7471-2800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruiheng","family":"Qu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Husbandry and Veterinary College, Jiangsu Vocational College of Agriculture and Forestry, Jurong 212400, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4294-9866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monia","family":"Perugini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Bioscience and Agro-Food and Environmental Technology, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7080-1028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Waliullah","family":"Masroor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Marine Sciences, Lasbela University of Agriculture, Water & Marine Sciences (LUAWMS), Uthal 10250, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9768-5576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Quanquan","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09802-5","article-title":"Emerging Climate Impact on Carbon Sinks in a Consolidated Carbon Budget","volume":"649","author":"Friedlingstein","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022MS003563","DOI":"10.1029\/2022MS003563","article-title":"Global Surface Ocean Acidification Indicators from 1750 to 2100","volume":"15","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04095","article-title":"Anthropogenic Ocean Acidification over the Twenty-First Century and Its Impact on Calcifying Organisms","volume":"437","author":"Orr","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2380","article-title":"Benthic Coral Reef Calcium Carbonate Dissolution in an Acidifying Ocean","volume":"4","author":"Eyre","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1884","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12179","article-title":"Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Organisms: Quantifying Sensitivities and Interaction with Warming","volume":"19","author":"Kroeker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Arias, P., Bustamante, M., Elgizouli, I., Flato, G., Howden, M., M\u00e9ndez-Vallejo, C., Pereira, J.J., Pichs-Madruga, R., Rose, S.K., and Saheb, Y. (2023). Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-011-0156-z","article-title":"The RCP Greenhouse Gas Concentrations and Their Extensions from 1765 to 2300","volume":"109","author":"Meinshausen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6225","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-10-6225-2013","article-title":"Multiple Stressors of Ocean Ecosystems in the 21st Century: Projections with CMIP5 Models","volume":"10","author":"Bopp","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13167","article-title":"Animal Behaviour Shapes the Ecological Effects of Ocean Acidification and Warming: Moving from Individual to Community-level Responses","volume":"22","author":"Nagelkerken","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1007\/s10113-016-0949-8","article-title":"Ocean Acidification: Assessing the Vulnerability of Socioeconomic Systems in Small Island Developing States","volume":"17","author":"Schmutter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reg. Environ. Change"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3354\/meps10791","article-title":"Offspring Sensitivity to Ocean Acidification Changes Seasonally in a Coastal Marine Fish","volume":"504","author":"Murray","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3275","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2009.0784","article-title":"Effects of Ocean Acidification on the Early Life History of a Tropical Marine Fish","volume":"276","author":"Munday","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E20","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2803-x","article-title":"Methods Matter in Repeating Ocean Acidification Studies","volume":"586","author":"Munday","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"cov073","DOI":"10.1093\/conphys\/cov073","article-title":"Effects of Ocean Acidification on Embryonic Respiration and Development of a Temperate Wrasse Living along a Natural CO2 Gradient","volume":"4","author":"Cattano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Conserv. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1071\/MF10269","article-title":"Effects of Climate Change on Fish Reproduction and Early Life History Stages","volume":"62","author":"Pankhurst","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12930","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1004519107","article-title":"Replenishment of Fish Populations Is Threatened by Ocean Acidification","volume":"107","author":"Munday","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2122","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12833","article-title":"A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Multiple Abiotic Stressors on Marine Embryos and Larvae","volume":"21","author":"Przeslawski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/ict049","article-title":"Multistressor Impacts of Warming and Acidification of the Ocean on Marine Invertebrates\u2019 Life Histories","volume":"53","author":"Byrne","year":"2013","journal-title":"Integr. Comp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2979.2008.00281.x","article-title":"Climate Change and the Future for Coral Reef Fishes","volume":"9","author":"Munday","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fish Fish."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1023\/B:FISH.0000030602.51939.50","article-title":"Cold and Dark or Warm and Light: Variations on the Theme of Environmental Control of Reproduction","volume":"28","author":"Pankhurst","year":"2003","journal-title":"Fish Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1890\/14-0559.1","article-title":"Temperature Is the Evil Twin: Effects of Increased Temperature and Ocean Acidification on Reproduction in a Reef Fish","volume":"25","author":"Miller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devergne, J., Loizeau, V., Lebigre, C., Bado-Nilles, A., Collet, S., Mouchel, O., Iaria, U., Le Gall, M.-M., Madec, L., and Turi\u00e8s, C. (2023). Impacts of Long-Term Exposure to Ocean Acidification and Warming on Three-Spined Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) Growth and Reproduction. Fishes, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/fishes8100523"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-environ-012320-083019","article-title":"The Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Ecosystems and Reliant Human Communities","volume":"45","author":"Doney","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00360-017-1105-6","article-title":"Physiological Implications of Ocean Acidification for Marine Fish: Emerging Patterns and New Insights","volume":"188","author":"Esbaugh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. B"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1061","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00064.2014","article-title":"Physiological Impacts of Elevated Carbon Dioxide and Ocean Acidification on Fish","volume":"307","author":"Heuer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aax0621","article-title":"Trophic Pyramids Reorganize When Food Web Architecture Fails to Adjust to Ocean Change","volume":"369","author":"Nagelkerken","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2020.113439","article-title":"Climate Change Impacts on Fish Reproduction Are Mediated at Multiple Levels of the Brain-Pituitary-Gonad Axis","volume":"291","author":"Servili","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1007\/s11802-011-1835-0","article-title":"Expression Patterns of Cytochrome P450 Aromatase Genes during Ovary Development and Their Responses to Temperature Stress in Female Yellow Catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco)","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ocean Univ. China"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1007\/s10695-024-01332-7","article-title":"Response of CRH System in Brain and Gill of Marine Medaka to Seawater Acidification","volume":"50","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Fish Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1071\/RD9920497","article-title":"Intraovarian Regulation: The IGF-I Example","volume":"4","author":"Adashi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Reprod. Fertil. Dev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2011.08.002","article-title":"The Molecular Physiology of CRH Neurons","volume":"33","author":"Aguilera","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, W., Zhai, Y., Zhu, B., Wu, K., Fan, Y., Zhou, X., Liu, L., and Ge, W. (2022). Loss of Growth Differentiation Factor 9 Causes an Arrest of Early Folliculogenesis in Zebrafish\u2013A Novel Insight into Its Action Mechanism. PLoS Genet., 18.","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.07.01.498398"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"109","article-title":"Glucocorticoids, Stress, and Fertility","volume":"35","author":"Whirledge","year":"2010","journal-title":"Minerva Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2009.04.017","article-title":"Neuroendocrinology of Reproduction in Teleost Fish","volume":"165","author":"Zohar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate3087","article-title":"Molecular Signatures of Transgenerational Response to Ocean Acidification in a Species of Reef Fish","volume":"6","author":"Schunter","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2019.113322","article-title":"Hypothalamic- and Pituitary-Derived Growth and Reproductive Hormones and the Control of Energy Balance in Fish","volume":"287","author":"Blanco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1903-y","article-title":"Ocean Acidification Does Not Impair the Behaviour of Coral Reef Fishes","volume":"577","author":"Clark","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E25","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2804-9","article-title":"Reply to: Methods Matter in Repeating Ocean Acidification Studies","volume":"586","author":"Clark","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01923947","article-title":"The Melatonin Rhythm: Both a Clock and a Calendar","volume":"49","author":"Reiter","year":"1993","journal-title":"Experientia"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1006\/gcen.1995.1045","article-title":"Melatonin Rhythms in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Maintained under Natural and Out-of-Phase Photoperiods","volume":"98","author":"Randall","year":"1995","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4369","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2002-020522","article-title":"WT1 and DAX-1 Inhibit Aromatase P450 Expression in Human Endometrial and Endometriotic Stromal Cells","volume":"87","author":"Gurates","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/S0303-7207(03)00198-9","article-title":"WT1 and DAX-1 Regulate SF-1-Mediated Human P450arom Gene Expression in Gonadal Cells","volume":"208","author":"Gurates","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-6480(92)90104-R","article-title":"Tetrapod-like Hypothalamo-Hypophysial Portal System in the Teleost Megalops Cyprinoides (Broussonet)","volume":"86","author":"Baskaran","year":"1992","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00004691","article-title":"Characterization, Cerebral Distribution and Gonadotropin Release Activity of Neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the Goldfish","volume":"7","author":"Kah","year":"1989","journal-title":"Fish Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"451","article-title":"Neuroanatomical Substrate for the Inhibition of Gonadotrophin Secretion in Goldfish: Existence of a Dopaminergic Preoptico-Hypophyseal Pathway","volume":"45","author":"Kah","year":"1987","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-animal-020420-042015","article-title":"Neuroendocrine Control of Reproduction in Teleost Fish: Concepts and Controversies","volume":"10","author":"Trudeau","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anim. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-6480(03)00086-8","article-title":"Aromatase Activity in the European Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) Brain. Distribution and Changes in Relation to Age, Sex, and the Annual Reproductive Cycle","volume":"132","author":"Piferrer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2006.04.028","article-title":"Cloning of the Promoter from the Gonadal Aromatase Gene of the European Sea Bass and Identification of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms","volume":"145","author":"Gealy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A Mol. Integr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, P., Purohit, S., Kothiyal, S., Negi, S., and Bhattacharya, I. (2022). Sex Specific Transcriptional Regulation of Gonadal Steroidogenesis in Teleost Fishes. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.820241"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3915","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-7-3915-2010","article-title":"Effect of Ocean Acidification on Marine Fish Sperm (Baltic Cod: Gadus Morhua )","volume":"7","author":"Frommel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anireprosci.2020.106652","article-title":"Optimization of Barbel (Barbus barbus L.) Fertilization and Effects of Ovarian Fluid When There Are Controlled Conditions for Gamete Activations","volume":"224","author":"Nowosad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2023.740425","article-title":"Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Sperm Collected Post-Mortem Could Be Revitalised by Short-Term Storage","volume":"581","author":"Brzyszcz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cripps, I.L., Munday, P.L., and McCormick, M.I. (2011). Ocean Acidification Affects Prey Detection by a Predatory Reef Fish. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0022736"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marenvres.2017.07.016","article-title":"Ocean Acidification Hampers Sperm-Egg Collisions, Gamete Fusion, and Generation of Ca2+ Oscillations of a Broadcast Spawning Bivalve, Tegillarca granosa","volume":"130","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mar. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20161021","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2016.1021","article-title":"Ocean Acidification Affects Fish Spawning but Not Paternity at CO2 Seeps","volume":"283","author":"Milazzo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0426.2010.01536.x","article-title":"Effects of pH on Sperm Motility in Several Salmoniformes Species: Oncorhynchus Mykiss, Salvelinus Fontinalis, Salmo Trutta, Salmo Salar and Thymallus Thymallus: Effects of pH on Sperm Motility in Several Salmoniformes Species","volume":"26","author":"Ciereszko","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ichthyol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sganga, D.E., Dahlke, F.T., S\u00f8rensen, S.R., Butts, I.A.E., Tomkiewicz, J., Mazurais, D., Servili, A., Bertolini, F., and Politis, S.N. (2022). CO2 Induced Seawater Acidification Impacts Survival and Development of European Eel Embryos. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0267228"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellbi.2005.06.004","article-title":"Sperm Motility in Fishes. (II) Effects of Ions and Osmolality: A Review","volume":"30","author":"Alavi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell Biol. Int."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2014.09.018","article-title":"Sperm Motility of Externally Fertilizing Fish and Amphibians","volume":"83","author":"Browne","year":"2015","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(98)00402-5","article-title":"Seminal Plasma Composition, Sperm Motility, and Milt Dilution in the Asian Catfish Clarias Macrocephalus (Gunther)","volume":"171","author":"Miura","year":"1999","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2020.03.016","article-title":"Impact of Activation Solutions on Fresh and Frozen-Thawed Sperm Motility and Fertilization Success for Two Species of Migratory Freshwater Fishes","volume":"149","author":"Motta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Q., Blondeau-Bidet, E., and Lorin-Nebel, C. (2022). Hypo-Osmoregulatory Roles of Vasotocinergic and Isotocinergic Systems in the Intestines of Two European Sea Bass Lineages. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232113636"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anireprosci.2018.03.004","article-title":"Sperm Characteristics of Wild and Captive Lebranche Mullet Mugil Liza (Valenciennes, 1836), Subjected to Sperm Activation in Different pH and Salinity Conditions","volume":"192","author":"Magnotti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1139\/f80-103","article-title":"Inhibition of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo Salar) Hatching at Low pH","volume":"37","author":"Peterson","year":"1980","journal-title":"Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/icr097","article-title":"Thermal Performance Curves, Phenotypic Plasticity, and the Time Scales of Temperature Exposure","volume":"51","author":"Schulte","year":"2011","journal-title":"Integr. Comp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2013.02.034","article-title":"Effects of Global Warming on Fish Reproductive Endocrine Axis, with Special Emphasis in Pejerrey Odontesthes Bonariensis","volume":"192","author":"Miranda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2017.10.019","article-title":"Effect of Combined Stress (Salinity and Temperature) in European Sea Bass Dicentrarchus Labrax Osmoregulatory Processes","volume":"215","author":"Masroor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A Mol. Integr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8649.2009.02500.x","article-title":"Current Knowledge on the Photoneuroendocrine Regulation of Reproduction in Temperate Fish Species","volume":"76","author":"Migaud","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Fish. Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.109601","article-title":"Exposure of Zebrafish to Elevated Temperature Induces Sex Ratio Shifts and Alterations in the Testicular Epigenome of Unexposed Offspring","volume":"186","author":"Valdivieso","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742882","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2025.742882","article-title":"Mechanisms Driving Temperature-Induced Early Sex Change in Barramundi (Lates Calcarifer)","volume":"610","author":"Budd","year":"2026","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2025.743382","article-title":"Regulatory Mechanisms of Temperature on the Gonadal Development of Fish","volume":"613","author":"Guan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.516","article-title":"Meta-analysis Reveals Complex Marine Biological Responses to the Interactive Effects of Ocean Acidification and Warming","volume":"3","author":"Harvey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20170784","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2017.0784","article-title":"Warming Has a Greater Effect than Elevated CO2 on Predator\u2013Prey Interactions in Coral Reef Fish","volume":"284","author":"Allan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-020-01370-3","article-title":"Impacts of Hypoxic Events Surpass Those of Future Ocean Warming and Acidification","volume":"5","author":"Sampaio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13527","article-title":"Effects of Ocean Acidification Increase Embryonic Sensitivity to Thermal Extremes in Atlantic Cod, Gadus Morhua","volume":"23","author":"Dahlke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"cox019","DOI":"10.1093\/conphys\/cox019","article-title":"The Effects of Elevated Temperature and Ocean Acidification on the Metabolic Pathways of Notothenioid Fish","volume":"5","author":"Enzor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Conserv. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2411","DOI":"10.1093\/icesjms\/fsaa094","article-title":"The Challenges of Detecting and Attributing Ocean Acidification Impacts on Marine Ecosystems","volume":"77","author":"Doo","year":"2020","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.144113","article-title":"Acid\u2013Base Physiology, Neurobiology and Behaviour in Relation to CO2-Induced Ocean Acidification","volume":"220","author":"Tresguerres","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1007\/s10886-021-01276-9","article-title":"Ocean Acidification Amplifies the Olfactory Response to 2-Phenylethylamine: Altered Cue Reception as a Mechanistic Pathway?","volume":"47","author":"Schirrmacher","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Chem. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1007\/s44338-024-00026-x","article-title":"Aggression in Aquatic Environments and Its Relevance in Aquaculture and Conservation Efforts","volume":"1","author":"Mushtaq","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Anim."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1139\/cjz-2023-0096","article-title":"Association of Reproduction with Seasonality in a Subtropical Viviparous Fish, Jenynsia Tucumana (Cyprinodontiformes: Anablepidae)","volume":"102","author":"Jewell","year":"2024","journal-title":"Can. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8971","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-36065-9","article-title":"Year-Round Spawning of Three Tropical Cypriniformes Fishes in Southeast Asia","volume":"13","author":"Kahar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03086","DOI":"10.1002\/ecy.3086","article-title":"Reproductive Phenology across the Lunar Cycle: Parental Decisions, Offspring Responses, and Consequences for Reef Fish","volume":"101","author":"Shima","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20140846","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2014.0846","article-title":"The Tropicalization of Temperate Marine Ecosystems: Climate-Mediated Changes in Herbivory and Community Phase Shifts","volume":"281","author":"Steinberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagelkerken, I., Alemany, T., Anquetin, J.M., Ferreira, C.M., Ludwig, K.E., Sasaki, M., and Connell, S.D. (2021). Ocean Acidification Boosts Reproduction in Fish via Indirect Effects. PLoS Biol., 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3001033"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, Z., Li, X., Wang, Y., Lu, W., Hou, J., and Cheng, J. (2022). Steroidogenic Effects of Salinity Change on the Hypothalamus\u2013Pituitary\u2013Gonad (HPG) Axis of Male Chinese Sea Bass (Lateolabrax maculatus). Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms231810905"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7848","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.122154899","article-title":"The Change in Oceanic O2 Inventory Associated with Recent Global Warming","volume":"99","author":"Keeling","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e692","DOI":"10.1002\/wcc.692","article-title":"Climate Change and Freshwater Ecology: Hydrological and Ecological Methods of Comparable Complexity Are Needed to Predict Risk","volume":"12","author":"John","year":"2021","journal-title":"WIREs Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142503","article-title":"Conserving Stream Fishes with Changing Climate: Assessing Fish Responses to Changes in Habitat over a Large Region","volume":"755","author":"Tsang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geller, W., Klapper, H., and Salomons, W. (1998). Natural and Anthropogenic Sulfuric Acidification of Lakes. Acidic Mining Lakes, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-71954-7"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olsen, E., Kaplan, I.C., Ainsworth, C., Fay, G., Gaichas, S., Gamble, R., Girardin, R., Eide, C.H., Ihde, T.F., and Morzaria-Luna, H.N. (2018). Ocean Futures Under Ocean Acidification, Marine Protection, and Changing Fishing Pressures Explored Using a Worldwide Suite of Ecosystem Models. Front. Mar. Sci., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2018.00064"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falkenberg, L.J., Bellerby, R.G.J., Connell, S.D., Fleming, L.E., Maycock, B., Russell, B.D., Sullivan, F.J., and Dupont, S. (2020). Ocean Acidification and Human Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17124563"}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/9\/834\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T18:02:30Z","timestamp":1790877750000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/14\/9\/834"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics14090834"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics14090834","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]}}}