{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T20:11:53Z","timestamp":1790885513951,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,30]],"date-time":"2021-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1630281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004442","name":"National Science Centre, Poland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2015\/16\/W\/ST5\/00005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2015\/16\/W\/ST5\/00005"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004442","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Exposure to air pollution from various airborne particulate matter (PM) is regarded as a potential health risk. Airborne PM penetrates the lungs, where it is taken up by macrophages, what results in macrophage activation and can potentially lead to negative consequences for the organism. In the present study, we assessed the effects of direct exposure of RAW 264.7 macrophages to crude PM (NIST1648a) and to a reduced content of organic matter (LAp120) for up to 72 h on selected parameters of metabolic activity. These included cell viability and apoptosis, metabolic activity and cell number, ROS synthesis, nitric oxide (NO) release, and oxidative burst. The results indicated that both NIST1648a and LAp120 negatively influenced the parameters of cell viability and metabolic activity due to increased ROS synthesis. The negative effect of PM was concentration-dependent; i.e., it was the most pronounced for the highest concentration applied. The impact of PM also depended on the time of exposure, so at respective time points, PM induced different effects. There were also differences in the impact of NIST1648a and LAp120 on almost all parameters tested. The negative effect of LAp120 was more pronounced, what appeared to be associated with an increased content of metals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics9090205","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,31]],"date-time":"2021-08-31T22:58:15Z","timestamp":1630450695000},"page":"205","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Metabolic Response of RAW 264.7 Macrophages to Exposure to Crude Particulate Matter and a Reduced Content of Organic Matter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Monika","family":"Jankowska-Kieltyka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sm\u0119tna Street 12, 31-343 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Roman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sm\u0119tna Street 12, 31-343 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magdalena","family":"Mikrut","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa Street 2, 30-387 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marta","family":"Kowalska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sm\u0119tna Street 12, 31-343 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4271-0118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rudi","family":"van Eldik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa Street 2, 30-387 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Egerlandstr. 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7821-0206","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irena","family":"Nalepa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sm\u0119tna Street 12, 31-343 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morakinyo, O.M., Mokgobu, M.I., Mukhola, M.S., and Hunter, R.P. (2016). Health Outcomes of Exposure to Biological and Chemical Components of Inhalable and Respirable Particulate Matter. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13060592"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2014.10.005","article-title":"A Review on the Human Health Impact of Airborne Particulate Matter","volume":"74","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2011.02.066","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Variation of Chemical Composition and Mass Closure of Ambient Coarse Particulate Matter (PM10-2.5) in the Los Angeles Area","volume":"45","author":"Cheung","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"71","article-title":"Elemental Composition and Rough Source Apportionment of Fine Particulate Matter in Air in Cracow, Poland","volume":"42","author":"Samek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Prot. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2015.08.087","article-title":"Contributions to Cities\u2019 Ambient Particulate Matter (PM): A Systematic Review of Local Source Contributions at Global Level","volume":"120","author":"Karagulian","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2012.06.039","article-title":"Size, Source and Chemical Composition as Determinants of Toxicity Attributable to Ambient Particulate Matter","volume":"60","author":"Kelly","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2012.07.036","article-title":"Attributing Health Effects to Individual Particulate Matter Constituents","volume":"62","author":"Rohr","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1080\/10962247.2015.1020396","article-title":"Long-Term Particulate Matter Exposure: Attributing Health Effects to Individual PM Components","volume":"65","author":"Wyzga","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-017-0142-3","article-title":"Outdoor Ambient Air Pollution and Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Neuroinflammation Hypothesis","volume":"4","author":"Jayaraj","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.5114\/ceji.2017.70975","article-title":"Air Pollution, Oxidative Stress, and Exacerbation of Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"42","author":"Gawda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cent. Eur J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hiraiwa, K., and van Eeden, S.F. (2013). Contribution of Lung Macrophages to the Inflammatory Responses Induced by Exposure to Air Pollutants. Mediat. Inflamm., 2013.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/619523"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1159\/000364945","article-title":"M1 and M2 Macrophages: The Chicken and the Egg of Immunity","volume":"6","author":"Mills","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Innate Immun."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10937404.2012.632359","article-title":"Composition of Air Pollution Particles and Oxidative Stress in Cells, Tissues, and Living Systems","volume":"15","author":"Ghio","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1002\/1873-3468.12964","article-title":"Role of Mitochondrial ROS in the Brain: From Physiology to Neurodegeneration","volume":"592","author":"Angelova","year":"2018","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2017.08.016","article-title":"The Phagocyte Respiratory Burst: Historical Perspectives and Recent Advances","volume":"192","author":"Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2795090","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/2795090","article-title":"The Reactive Oxygen Species in Macrophage Polarization: Reflecting Its Dual Role in Progression and Treatment of Human Diseases","volume":"2016","author":"Tan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2017.07.005","article-title":"Particulate Emissions from Modern and Old Technology Wood Combustion Induce Distinct Time-Dependent Patterns of Toxicological Responses in Vitro","volume":"44","author":"Happo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrestox.0c00007","article-title":"Particulate Matter Toxicity Is Nrf2 and Mitochondria Dependent: The Roles of Metals and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons","volume":"33","author":"Pardo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Y.-Y., Wang, Q., and Liu, T. (2017). Toxicity Research of PM2.5 Oompositions in Vitro. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14030232"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"National Institute of Standards and Technology (2015). Certificate of Analysis, Urban Particulate Matter. Standard Reference Material\u00ae 1648a."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.03.068","article-title":"Generation of Hydroxyl Radicals and Singlet Oxygen by Particulate Matter and Its Inorganic Components","volume":"238","author":"Mikrut","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2014.03.019","article-title":"Neuroprotective Effects of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Group II and III Activators against MPP(+)-Induced Cell Death in Human Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y Cells: The Impact of Cell Differentiation State","volume":"83","author":"Jantas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0320(20010501)44:1<57::AID-CYTO1082>3.0.CO;2-O","article-title":"Supravital Exposure to Propidium Iodide Identifies Apoptosis on Adherent Cells","volume":"44","author":"Zamai","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cytometry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1759(91)90198-O","article-title":"A Rapid and Simple Method for Measuring Thymocyte Apoptosis by Propidium Iodide Staining and Flow Cytometry","volume":"139","author":"Nicoletti","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1002\/cyto.1171","article-title":"Doublet Discrimination in DNA Cell-Cycle Analysis","volume":"46","author":"Wersto","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cytometry"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2017.10.022","article-title":"Assessment of Leukocyte Activity in Mice Devoid of the Glucocorticoid Receptor in the Noradrenergic System (GRDBHCre)","volume":"223","author":"Roman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5421","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1432-1327.2000.01606.x","article-title":"Investigation of the Alamar Blue (Resazurin) Fluorescent Dye for the Assessment of Mammalian Cell Cytotoxicity","volume":"267","author":"Wilson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1759(92)90008-H","article-title":"A Microplate Assay for the Detection of Oxidative Products Using 2\u2032,7\u2032-Dichlorofluorescin-Diacetate","volume":"156","author":"Rosenkranz","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1080\/02786820802363819","article-title":"A Macrophage-Based Method for the Assessment of the Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Activity of Atmospheric Particulate Matter (PM) and Application to Routine (Daily-24 h) Aerosol Monitoring Studies","volume":"42","author":"Landreman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aerosol. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/S1385-299X(99)00030-6","article-title":"Evaluation of Free Radical Production, Mitochondrial Membrane Potential and Cytoplasmic Calcium in Mammalian Ne l. urons by Flow Cytometry","volume":"4","author":"Sureda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Brain Res. Brain Res. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1016\/S1734-1140(12)70934-9","article-title":"Effects of Co-Administration of Fluoxetine and Risperidone on Properties of Peritoneal and Pleural Macrophages in Rats Subjected to the Forced Swimming Test","volume":"64","author":"Roman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pharm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-2697(89)90710-0","article-title":"Quantification of Cells Cultured on 96-Well Plates","volume":"182","author":"Kueng","year":"1989","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"95","article-title":"An Improved Experimental Model for the Study of in Vitro Release of Nitric Oxide by Murine Peritoneal Macrophages","volume":"42","author":"Marcinkiewicz","year":"1994","journal-title":"Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1080\/15321810500403722","article-title":"A Quantitative Nitroblue Tetrazolium Assay for Determining Intracellular Superoxide Anion Production in Phagocytic Cells","volume":"27","author":"Choi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Immunoass. Immunochem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1007\/s10495-014-0980-5","article-title":"Airborne Fine Particulate Matter Induces Multiple Cell Death Pathways in Human Lung Epithelial Cells","volume":"19","author":"Deng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Apoptosis"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2013.01.026","article-title":"Pro-Inflammatory Effects and Oxidative Stress in Lung Macrophages and Epithelial Cells Induced by Ambient Particulate Matter","volume":"183","author":"Michael","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2013.05.004","article-title":"PM2.5-Induced Oxidative Stress Triggers Autophagy in Human Lung Epithelial A549 Cells","volume":"27","author":"Deng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-62703-290-2_7","article-title":"Detection of Necrosis by Release of Lactate Dehydrogenase Activity","volume":"979","author":"Chan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2008.10.006","article-title":"Discriminative Cytotoxicity Assessment Based on Various Cellular Damages","volume":"184","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/s12199-011-0245-7","article-title":"Binding of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles to Lactate Dehydrogenase","volume":"17","author":"Zaqout","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Health Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2011.06.011","article-title":"Validation of an LDH Assay for Assessing Nanoparticle Toxicity","volume":"287","author":"Han","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2009.08.004","article-title":"Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis Are Induced in Human Endothelial Cells Exposed to Urban Particulate Matter","volume":"24","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piao, M.J., Ahn, M.J., Kang, K.A., Ryu, Y.S., Hyun, Y.J., Shilnikova, K., Zhen, A.X., Jeong, J.W., Choi, Y.H., and Kang, H.K. (2018). Particulate Matter 2.5 Damages Skin Cells by Inducing Oxidative Stress, Subcellular Organelle Dysfunction, and Apoptosis. Arch. Toxicol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-018-2197-9"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1002\/cyto.990130802","article-title":"Features of Apoptotic Cells Measured by Flow Cytometry","volume":"13","author":"Darzynkiewicz","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cytometry"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Kang, Z., Jiang, S., Zhao, J., Yan, S., Xu, F., and Xu, J. (2017). Effects of Ambient Fine Particles PM2.5 on Human HaCaT Cells. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14010072"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.04.010","article-title":"Exposure Scenario: Another Important Factor Determining the Toxic Effects of PM2.5 and Possible Mechanisms Involved","volume":"226","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2011.08.021","article-title":"Lung Oxidative Metabolism after Exposure to Ambient Particles","volume":"412","author":"Magnani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1177\/0192623312463784","article-title":"Decrease in Respiratory Function and Electron Transport Chain Induced by Airborne Particulate Matter (PM10) Exposure in Lung Mitochondria","volume":"41","author":"Chirino","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2017.08.076","article-title":"Cell Death Pathways of Particulate Matter Toxicity","volume":"188","author":"Peixoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2016.05.020","article-title":"Comparative Study of the Effects of PM1-Induced Oxidative Stress on Autophagy and Surfactant Protein B and C Expressions in Lung Alveolar Type II Epithelial MLE-12 Cells","volume":"1860","author":"Bai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2016.03.022","article-title":"Water Soluble and Insoluble Components of Urban PM2.5 and Their Cytotoxic Effects on Epithelial Cells (A549) in Vitro","volume":"212","author":"Zou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2261","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b04261","article-title":"Synergistic and Antagonistic Interactions among the Particulate Matter Components in Generating Reactive Oxygen Species Based on the Dithiothreitol Assay","volume":"52","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10978","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-11178-0","article-title":"The Unexpected Role of Bioaerosols in the Oxidative Potential of PM","volume":"7","author":"Samake","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.6000","article-title":"Ultrafine Particulate Pollutants Induce Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Damage","volume":"111","author":"Li","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1039\/C5FD00196J","article-title":"Oxidative Potential of Size-Fractionated Atmospheric Aerosol in Urban and Rural Sites across Europe","volume":"189","author":"Shafer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Faraday Discuss."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-291X(78)90749-0","article-title":"Kinetics of Oxygen Consumption by Phagocytosing Human Neutrophils","volume":"84","author":"Segal","year":"1978","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.3156","article-title":"Particulate Matter Phagocytosis Induces Tissue Factor in Differentiating Macrophages","volume":"36","author":"Milano","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2013.02.014","article-title":"Respiratory Burst in Alveolar Macrophages Exposed to Urban Particles Is Not a Predictor of Cytotoxicity","volume":"27","author":"Breznan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicol. In Vitro"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2010.09.022","article-title":"Endogenous Enzymes (NOX and ECSOD) Regulate Smoke-Induced Oxidative Stress","volume":"49","author":"Tollefson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"732","article-title":"Effect of Quartz and Alumina Dust on Generation of Superoxide Radicals and Hydrogen Peroxide by Alveolar Macrophages, Granulocytes, and Monocytes","volume":"50","author":"Gusev","year":"1993","journal-title":"Br. J. Ind. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.5493\/wjem.v5.i2.64","article-title":"Spotlights on Immunological Effects of Reactive Nitrogen Species: When Inflammation Says Nitric Oxide","volume":"5","author":"Predonzani","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1006\/taap.2000.9002","article-title":"Insoluble Components of Concentrated Air Particles Mediate Alveolar Macrophage Responses in Vitro","volume":"167","author":"Imrich","year":"2000","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gawda, A., Majka, G., Nowak, B., \u015ar\u00f3ttek, M., Walczewska, M., and Marcinkiewicz, J. (2018). Air Particulate Matter SRM 1648a Primes Macrophages to Hyperinflammatory Response after LPS Stimulation. Inflamm. Res.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-018-1165-4"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.20611","article-title":"PM10-Biogenic Fraction Drives the Seasonal Variation of Proinflammatory Response in A549 Cells","volume":"27","author":"Camatini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.21884","article-title":"Differential Proinflammatory Responses Induced by Diesel Exhaust Particles with Contrasting PAH and Metal Content","volume":"30","author":"Totlandsdal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1023\/B:CBTO.0000038461.02222.95","article-title":"Effects of Ambient Air Particles on Nitric Oxide Production in Macrophage Cell Lines","volume":"20","author":"Chauhan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cell Biol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1039\/C5EM00364D","article-title":"Oxidative Potential of Coarse Particulate Matter (PM(10-2.5)) and Its Relation to Water Solubility and Sources of Trace Elements and Metals in the Los Angeles Basin","volume":"17","author":"Shirmohammadi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2016.04.029","article-title":"Identification of PM10 Characteristics Involved in Cellular Responses in Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells (Beas-2B)","volume":"149","author":"Govarts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2014.12.051","article-title":"In Vitro and in Vivo Toxicity of Urban and Rural Particulate Matter from California","volume":"103","author":"Mirowsky","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.03.056","article-title":"Resolution of the Mediators of in Vitro Oxidative Reactivity in Size-Segregated Fractions That May Be Masked in the Urban PM(10) Cocktail","volume":"485\u2013486","author":"Price","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2017.08.090","article-title":"Chemical Composition of Submicron and Fine Particulate Matter Collected in Krakow, Poland. Consequences for the APARIC Project","volume":"187","author":"Samek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemosphere"}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/9\/9\/205\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:55:34Z","timestamp":1760165734000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/9\/9\/205"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,30]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics9090205"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics9090205","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,30]]}}}