{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T20:54:31Z","timestamp":1773867271108,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]],"date-time":"2021-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634774400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The detection of SARS-CoV-2 in indoor environments is a cause of increasing concern. In this study, three sampling methodologies have been used in order to collect SARS-CoV-2 and 17 other respiratory viruses in indoor air, combined with a new analytical process to analyze respiratory viruses. Different areas of an ophthalmological hospital were investigated for the presence of these airborne viruses. Moreover, indoor air quality (IAQ) parameters (carbon dioxide, CO2; carbon monoxide, CO; nitrogen dioxide, NO2; volatile organic compounds, VOCs; formaldehyde, HCHO; and particulate matter, PM) have been examined to study the relationship between IAQ and airborne viruses. All indoor air and surface samples assessed were found to be negative for SARS-CoV-2. Nevertheless, another airborne respiratory virus (HRV\/ENV) was detected, illustrating that the methodology set out here is a suitable one. Regarding the results for the IAQ, chemical parameters studied in the hall and waiting room of the hospital presented acceptable values. However, in the doctor\u2032s consultation room VOCs and HCHO show some instantaneous levels higher than the recommended guide values. The methodological approach described in this paper, integrating conventional IAQ and the assessment of bioaerosols, can be used in research and control programs aimed at promoting a healthy indoor environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics9110274","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]],"date-time":"2021-10-21T23:27:39Z","timestamp":1634858859000},"page":"274","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Indoor Air Quality including Respiratory Viruses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Antonio","family":"L\u00f3pez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"FISABIO-Public Health, Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Region, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Esther","family":"Fuentes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FISABIO-Public Health, Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Region, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vicent","family":"Yus\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FISABIO-Public Health, Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Region, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"Public Health Laboratory of Valencia, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"Analytical Chemistry Department, University of Valencia, Edifici Jeroni Mu\u00f1oz, Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"F.","family":"L\u00f3pez-Labrador","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FISABIO-Public Health, Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Region, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"Microbiology Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, Av. de Blasco Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez, 46010 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"CIBERESP, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Institute of Health Carlos III), Av. Monforte de Lemos, 5, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marisa","family":"Camar\u00f3","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Laboratory of Valencia, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5992-5006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Peris-Martinez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencia Region, FISABIO-Mediterranean Ophthalmological Foundation (FOM), 12, Avenida P\u00edo Baroja, 46015 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"Surgery Department (Ophthalmology), Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, 17, Avenida Blasco Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez, 46010 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Ll\u00e1cer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Laboratory of Valencia, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Susana","family":"Ortol\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Laboratory of Valencia, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5914-9721","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Clara","family":"Coscoll\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FISABIO-Public Health, Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Region, 21, Avenida Catalunya, 46020 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2020, October 04). Listings of WHO\u2019s Response to COVID-19. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/es\/news\/item\/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2021, June 16). Spanish Ministry of Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.mscbs.gob.es\/profesionales\/saludPublica\/ccayes\/alertasActual\/nCov\/documentos\/Actualizacion_316_COVID-19.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1610","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.3227","article-title":"Air, Surface Environmental, and Personal Protective Equipment Contamination by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) From a Symptomatic Patient","volume":"323","author":"Ong","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2004973","article-title":"Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1","volume":"382","author":"Bushmaker","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.105730","article-title":"Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: The world should face the reality","volume":"139","author":"Morawska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Alcam\u00ed, A., del Val, M., Hern\u00e1n, M., Latassa, P., Jim\u00e9nez, J.L., Querol, X., S\u00e1nchez, G., and Valencia, A. (2021, January 30). Informe Cient\u00edfico sobre V\u00edas de Transmisi\u00f3n SARS-CoV-2. Available online: https:\/\/www.ciencia.gob.es\/stfls\/MICINN\/Prensa\/FICHEROS\/Informe_aerosoles_COVID_MCienciaInnov.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2800","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16670-2","article-title":"Detection of air and surface contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in hospital rooms of infected patients","volume":"11","author":"Chia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.141324","article-title":"Hospital indoor air quality monitoring for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus","volume":"748","author":"Kenarkoohi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2271-3","article-title":"Aerodynamic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 in two Wuhan hospitals","volume":"582","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12732","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-69286-3","article-title":"Aerosol and surface contamination of SARS-CoV-2 observed in quarantine and isolation care","volume":"10","author":"Santarpia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-018-0396-4","article-title":"A novel sampling method to detect airborne influenza and other respiratory viruses in mechanically ventilated patients: A feasibility study","volume":"8","author":"Mitchell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1086\/596478","article-title":"Measurement of airborne influenza virus in a hospital emergency department","volume":"48","author":"Blachere","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2011.02.014","article-title":"Room ventilation and the risk of airborne infection transmission in 3 health care settings within a large teaching hospital","volume":"39","author":"Knibbs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Infect Control"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140207","article-title":"Sampling and detection of corona viruses in air: A mini review","volume":"740","author":"Rahmani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145903","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.145903","article-title":"Sampling methods and assays applied in SARS-CoV-2 exposure assessment","volume":"775","author":"Pena","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.111092","article-title":"Assessment of CO2 and aerosol (PM2.5, PM10, UFP) concentrations during the reopening of schools in the COVID-19 pandemic: The case of a metropolitan area in Central-Southern Spain","volume":"197","author":"Villanueva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1596","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.14278","article-title":"Collection, particle sizing and detection of airborne viruses","volume":"127","author":"Pan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2772","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00998-09","article-title":"Rapid Multiplex Reverse Transcription-PCR Typing of Influenza A and B virus, and subtyping of Influenza A virus into H1,2,3,5,7,9, N1 (Human), N1 (Animal), N2, and N7, Including Typing of Novel Swine Origin Influenza A (H1N1) Virus, during the 2009 Outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin","volume":"47","author":"He","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2008.06.002","article-title":"Typing (A\/B) and subtyping (H1\/H3\/H5) of influenza viruses by multiplex real-time RT-PCR assays","volume":"152","author":"Suwannakarn","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2006-1406","article-title":"Clinical disease in children associated with newly described coronavirus subtypes","volume":"119","author":"Kuypers","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2981","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00321-09","article-title":"Evaluation of a new rapid antigen test using immunochromatography for detection of human metapneumovirus in comparison with real-time PCR assay","volume":"47","author":"Matsuzaki","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2116","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00027-07","article-title":"Real-time PCR for diagnosis of human bocavirus infections and phylogenetic analysis","volume":"45","author":"Neske","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2260","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00848-07","article-title":"Increased detection of respiratory syncytial virus, influenza viruses, parainfluenza viruses, and adenoviruses with real-time PCR in samples from patients with respiratory symptoms","volume":"45","author":"Wolfs","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1505.081286","article-title":"New Respiratory Enterovirus and Recombinant Rhinoviruses among Circulating Picornaviruses","volume":"15","author":"Tapparel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112656","article-title":"An integrated system of air sampling and simultaneous enrichment for rapid biosensing of airborne coronavirus and influenza virus","volume":"170","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosens. Biolectron."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"143","article-title":"Physical collection efficiency of filter materials for bacteria and viruses","volume":"51","author":"Burton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Occup. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200306-760OC","article-title":"Detection of Airborne Rhinovirus and Its Relation to Outdoor Air Supply in Office Environments","volume":"169","author":"Myatt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1472","DOI":"10.1086\/429634","article-title":"Detection of airborne severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus and environmental contamination in SARS outbreak units","volume":"191","author":"Booth","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Lindsley, W.G., Green, B.J., Blachere, F.M., Martin, S.B., Law, B., Jensen, P., and Schafer, M. (2017). Sampling and Characterization of Bioaerosols. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw239","article-title":"Extensive viable Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronavirus contamination in air and surrounding environment in MERS isolation wards","volume":"63","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.5604\/12321966.1120585","article-title":"Airborne virus sampling-efficiencies of samplers and their detection limits for infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV)","volume":"21","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Agric. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.138401","article-title":"A field indoor air measurement of SARS-CoV-2 in the patient rooms of the largest hospital in Iran","volume":"725","author":"Faridi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2018.00174","article-title":"Aerosol Sampling in a Hospital Emergency Room Setting: A complementary Surveillance Method for the Detection of Respiratory Viruses","volume":"6","author":"Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Public Health."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"850","article-title":"Detection of Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses in air sampled from a Univeristy Campus: A longitudinal study","volume":"70","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spena, A., Palombi, L., Corcione, M., Carestia, M., and Spena, V.A. (2020). On the optimal indoor air conditions for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation. An entalphy-based approach. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17176083"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1186\/s40635-020-00349-5","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 analysis on environmental surfaces collected in an intensive care unit: Keeping Ernest Shackleton\u2019s spirit","volume":"8","author":"Escudero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intens. Care Med. Exp."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2020.11.024","article-title":"Detection of SARS-CoV-2 within the healthcare environment: A multi-centre study conducted during the first wave of the COVID-19 outbreak in England","volume":"108","author":"Moore","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.07.027","article-title":"Air and surface contamination by SARS-CoV-2 virus in a tertiary hospital in Wuhan, China","volume":"99","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"76","article-title":"Detection of SARS-CoV-2 on hospital surfaces","volume":"91","author":"Pasquarella","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Biomed."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"WHO (2021, February 22). WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality. Available online: http:\/\/www.euro.who.int\/__data\/assets\/pdf_file\/0009\/128169\/e94535.pdf."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"WHO (2021, October 13). WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/345329\/9789240034228-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"INSHT (2021, July 13). L\u00edmite de Exposici\u00f3n Profesional para Agentes Qu\u00edmicos en Espa\u00f1a. Available online: https:\/\/www.insst.es\/documents\/94886\/1637405\/LEP+2021.pdf\/3e65c9ac-0708-f262-4808-2562cc9e0134?t=1620397240887."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"ASHRAE, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (2010). ASHRAE Standard. Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, ASHRAE, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"LIFTEC and CSIC (2021, January 30). Gu\u00eda Pr\u00e1ctica: Ventilaci\u00f3n Natural en las Aulas. Available online: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1VG03H9UPqsTBBw3qNKNmZ2PtUbfSsc6f\/view."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Marr, L., Miller, S., Prather, K., Haas, C., Bahnfleth, W., Corsi, R., Tang, J., Herrmann, H., Pollitt, K., and Ballester, J. (2021, May 19). FAQs on Protecting Yourself from Aerosol Transmission. Available online: http:\/\/tinyurl.com\/faqs-aerosol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-014-0470-6","article-title":"Indoor air quality in schools","volume":"12","author":"Dambruoso","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-010-9345-3","article-title":"Indoor air quality in elementary schools of Lisbon in spring","volume":"33","author":"Pegas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"German Supreme Health Authorities (2012). Guide Values for Indoor Air: First Update of the German Risk Assessment Procedure (Basic Scheme). Communication from the Ad-hoc Working Group on Indoor Guide Values of the Indoor Air Hygiene Commission and the States\u2019 Supreme Health Authorities. Bundesgesundheitsblatt, 55, 279\u2013290. Available online: https:\/\/www.umweltbundesamt.de\/sites\/default\/files\/medien\/378\/dokumente\/guide_values_for_indoor_air_basic_scheme.pdf."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/9\/11\/274\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:20:01Z","timestamp":1760167201000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/9\/11\/274"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics9110274"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics9110274","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]]}}}