{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T08:13:14Z","timestamp":1790151194098,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,21]],"date-time":"2019-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1548028800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["NO. 2016YFC1402104"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NO. 2016YFC1402104"]}]},{"name":"Research on Public Welfare Technology Application Projects of Zhejiang Province, China","award":["NO. 2013C32040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NO. 2013C32040"]}]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Integrated Marine Monitoring and Applied Technologies for Harmful Algal Blooms\uff0cSOA,","award":["MATHAB201803"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MATHAB201803"]}]},{"name":"the Laboratory of Marine Ecosystem and Biogeochemistry, SOA","award":["LMEB201507"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LMEB201507"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No. 41306095"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 41306095"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Jiangsu Pyropia industrial research system","award":["JFRS-04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JFRS-04"]}]},{"name":"NOAA Sea Grant Aquaculture Research Program","award":["NA14OAR4170093"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA14OAR4170093"]}]},{"name":"NOAA ECOHAB Program","award":["NA17NOS4780184"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA17NOS4780184"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The physiological and toxicological characteristics of Dinophysis acuminata have been increasingly studied in an attempt to better understand and predict diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) events worldwide. Recent work has identified prey quantity, organic nitrogen, and ammonium as likely contributors to increased Dinophysis growth rates and\/or toxicity. Further research is now needed to better understand the interplay between these factors, for example, how inorganic and organic compounds interact with prey and a variety of Dinophysis species and\/or strains. In this study, the exudate of ciliate prey and cryptophytes were investigated for an ability to support D. acuminata growth and toxin production in the presence and absence of prey, i.e., during mixotrophic and phototrophic growth respectively. A series of culturing experiments demonstrated that the addition of ciliate lysate led to faster dinoflagellate growth rates (0.25 \u00b1 0.002\/d) in predator-prey co-incubations than in treatments containing (1) similar levels of prey but without lysate (0.21 \u00b1 0.003\/d), (2) ciliate lysate but no live prey (0.12 \u00b1 0.004\/d), or (3) monocultures of D. acuminata without ciliate lysate or live prey (0.01 \u00b1 0.007\/d). The addition of ciliate lysate to co-incubations also resulted in maximum toxin quotas and extracellular concentrations of okadaic acid (OA, 0.11 \u00b1 0.01 pg\/cell; 1.37 \u00b1 0.10 ng\/mL) and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1, 0.20 \u00b1 0.02 pg\/cell; 1.27 \u00b1 0.10 ng\/mL), and significantly greater total DSP toxin concentrations (intracellular + extracellular). Pectenotoxin-2 values, intracellular or extracellular, did not show a clear trend across the treatments. The addition of cryptophyte lysate or whole cells, however, did not support dinoflagellate cell division. Together these data demonstrate that while certain growth was observed when only lysate was added, the benefits to Dinophysis were maximized when ciliate lysate was added with the ciliate inoculum (i.e., during mixotrophic growth). Extrapolating to the field, these culturing studies suggest that the presence of ciliate exudate during co-occurring dinoflagellate-ciliate blooms may indirectly and directly exacerbate D. acuminata abundance and toxigenicity. More research is required, however, to understand what direct or indirect mechanisms control the predator-prey dynamic and what component(s) of ciliate lysate are being utilized by the dinoflagellate or other organisms (e.g., ciliate or bacteria) in the culture if predictive capabilities are to be developed and management strategies created.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11010057","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,22]],"date-time":"2019-01-22T03:08:22Z","timestamp":1548126502000},"page":"57","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Prey Lysate Enhances Growth and Toxin Production in an Isolate of Dinophysis acuminata"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Han","family":"Gao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William &amp; Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA"},{"name":"Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mengmeng","family":"Tong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinlong","family":"An","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ocean College, Agricultural University of Hebei, Qinhuangdao 066000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juliette L.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William &amp; Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.2216\/i0031-8884-32-2-79.1","article-title":"A review of harmful algal blooms and their apparent global increase","volume":"32","author":"Hallegraeff","year":"1993","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.3390\/md12010394","article-title":"Dinophysis toxins: Causative organisms, distribution and fate in shellfish","volume":"12","author":"Reguera","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.2216\/i0031-8884-33-6-455.1","article-title":"Okadaic acid antibody localizes to chloroplasts in the DSP-toxin-producing dinoflagellates Prorocentrum lima and Prorocentrum maculosum","volume":"33","author":"Zhou","year":"1994","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1444-2906.2001.00353.x","article-title":"Accumulation of a high level of diarrhetic shellfish toxins in the green mussel Perna viridis during a bloom of Dinophysis caudata and Dinophysis miles in Sapian Bay, Panay Island, the Philippines","volume":"67","author":"Marasigan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Fish. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00571373","article-title":"The effects of the diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1, on the growth of microalgae","volume":"126","author":"Windust","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(97)00047-0","article-title":"Comparative toxicity of the diarrhetic shellfish poisons, okadaic acid, okadaic acid diol-ester and dinophysistoxin-4, to the diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii","volume":"35","author":"Windust","year":"1997","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2003.10.003","article-title":"Isolation of pectenotoxin-2 from Dinophysis acuta and its conversion to pectenotoxin-2 seco acid, and preliminary assessment of their acute toxicities","volume":"43","author":"Miles","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2007.12.006","article-title":"Studies of diarrhetic activity on pectenotoxin-6 in the mouse and rat","volume":"51","author":"Ito","year":"2008","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2005). Commission regulation (EC) No. 2074\/2005 of the European parliament and of the council of 5 December 2005. Off. J. Eur. Commun., L338, 27\u201359."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.3354\/ame045101","article-title":"First successful culture of the marine dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuminata","volume":"45","author":"Park","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aquat. Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.3354\/ame036165","article-title":"Ingestion of cryptophyte cells by the marine photosynthetic ciliate Mesodinium rubrum","volume":"36","author":"Yih","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aquat. Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1078\/1434-4610-00106","article-title":"Molecular evidence for plastid robbery (Kleptoplastidy) in Dinophysis, a dinoflagellate causing diarrhetic shellfish poisoning","volume":"153","author":"Takishita","year":"2002","journal-title":"Protist"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1529-8817.2003.02100.x","article-title":"Phylogenetic evidence for the cryptophyte origin of the plastid of Dinophysis (Dinophysiales, Dinophyceae)","volume":"39","author":"Hackett","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.2216\/i0031-8884-42-5-473.1","article-title":"Genetic analysis of the psbA gene from single cells indicates a cryptomonad origin of the plastid in Dinophysis (Dinophyceae)","volume":"42","author":"Janson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05496","article-title":"Retention of transcriptionally active cryptophyte nuclei by the ciliate Myrionecta rubra","volume":"445","author":"Johnson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2015.12.004","article-title":"Cryptophyte gene regulation in the kleptoplastidic, karyokleptic ciliate Mesodinium rubrum","volume":"52","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-2920.2004.00646.x","article-title":"Molecular evidence that plastids in the toxin-producing dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis originate from the free-living cryptophyte Teleaulax amphioxeia","volume":"6","author":"Janson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2009.04.004","article-title":"DSP toxin production de novo in cultures of Dinophysis acuminata (Dinophyceae) from North America","volume":"8","author":"Hackett","year":"2009","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2008.07.003","article-title":"Production of dinophysistoxin-1 and pectenotoxin-2 by a culture of Dinophysis acuminata (Dinophyceae)","volume":"8","author":"Kamiyama","year":"2009","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.3354\/ame01419","article-title":"Effect of temperature on production of okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1, and pectenotoxin-2 by Dinophysis acuminata in culture experiments","volume":"60","author":"Kamiyama","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquat. Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2011.01076.x","article-title":"Differences in the production and excretion kinetics of okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1, and pectenotoxin-2 between cultures of Dinophysis acuminata and Dinophysis fortii isolated from western Japan","volume":"47","author":"Nagai","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.3354\/meps10027","article-title":"Effects of light and food availability on toxin production, growth and photosynthesis in Dinophysis acuminata","volume":"471","author":"Nielsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-013-0219-9","article-title":"Diarrheic toxins in field-sampled and cultivated Dinophysis spp. cells from southern Brazil","volume":"26","author":"Mafra","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1588","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.10119","article-title":"The contribution of inorganic and organic nutrients to the growth of a North American isolate of the mixotrophic dinoflagellate, Dinophysis acuminata","volume":"60","author":"Gobler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1111\/jpy.12251","article-title":"Characterization and comparison of toxin-producing isolates of Dinophysis acuminata from New England and Canada","volume":"51","author":"Tong","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1515\/ohs-2017-0043","article-title":"Characterization of Dinophysis acuminata from the Yellow Sea, China, and its response to different temperatures and Mesodinium prey","volume":"46","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oceanol. Hydrobiol. Stud."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.3800\/pbr.3.78","article-title":"Successful cultivation of the toxic dinoflagellate Dinophysis caudata (Dinophyceae)","volume":"3","author":"Nishitani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Plankton Benthos Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.3354\/ame01233","article-title":"Growth characteristics and phylogenetic analysis of the marine dinoflagellate Dinophysis infundibulus (Dinophyceae)","volume":"52","author":"Nishitani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquat. Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2012.12.004","article-title":"Production and excretion of okadaic acid, pectenotoxin-2 and a novel dinophysistoxin from the DSP-causing marine dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuta\u2014Effects of light, food availability and growth phase","volume":"23","author":"Nielsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2016.09.009","article-title":"Harmful effects of Dinophysis to the ciliate Mesodinium rubrum: Implications for prey capture","volume":"59","author":"Mafra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2016.07.001","article-title":"The use of a mucus trap by Dinophysis acuta for the capture of Mesodinium rubrum prey under culture conditions","volume":"58","author":"Papiol","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.3354\/ame009177","article-title":"Dinophysis spp cells concentrated from nature for experimental purposes, using size fractionation and reverse migration","volume":"9","author":"Maestrini","year":"1995","journal-title":"Aquat. Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Smayda, T.J., and Shimizu, Y. (1993). Trying to cultivate Dinophysis spp.. Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea, Elsevier Science Publisher."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hattenrath-Lehmann, T.K., Marcoval, M.A., Mittlesdorf, H., Goleski, J.A., Wang, Z.H., Haynes, B., Morton, S.L., and Gobler, C.J. (2015). Nitrogenous nutrients promote the growth and toxicity of Dinophysis acuminata during estuarine bloom events. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0124148"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.3354\/ame01757","article-title":"Role of dissolved nitrate and phosphate in isolates of Mesodinium rubrum and toxin-producing Dinophysis acuminata","volume":"75","author":"Tong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aquat. Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.3354\/meps07898","article-title":"Nitrogen nutrition in assemblages dominated by Pseudo-nitzschia spp., Alexandrium catenella and Dinophysis acuminata off the west coast of South Africa","volume":"379","author":"Seeyave","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2013.03.005","article-title":"The emergence of Dinophysis acuminata blooms and DSP toxins in shellfish in New York waters","volume":"26","author":"Marcoval","year":"2013","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2012.06.008","article-title":"Toxin production, retention, and extracellular release by Dinophysis acuminata during extended plateau phase and culture decline","volume":"19","author":"Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.3354\/ame01203","article-title":"Growth and grazing responses of the mixotrophic dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuminata as functions of light intensity and prey concentration","volume":"51","author":"Kim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquat. Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3354\/meps07953","article-title":"Role of food uptake for photosynthesis, growth and survival of the mixotrophic dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuminata","volume":"381","author":"Riisgaard","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2010.10.005","article-title":"The effects of growth phase and light intensity on toxin production by Dinophysis acuminata from the northeastern United States","volume":"10","author":"Tong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.1093\/plankt\/fbu070","article-title":"Predicting harmful algal blooms: A case study with Dinophysis ovum in the Gulf of Mexico","volume":"36","author":"Harred","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Plankton Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00680222","article-title":"Biogeography of toxic dinoflagellates in the genus Alexandrium from the northeastern United-States and Canada","volume":"120","author":"Anderson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2004.10.014","article-title":"Integrated ecological assessment of Danish Baltic Sea coastal areas by means of phytoplankton and macrophytobenthos","volume":"63","author":"Sagert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2018.08.001","article-title":"Effect of ciliate strain, size, and nutritional content on the growth and toxicity of mixotrophic Dinophysis acuminata","volume":"78","author":"Smith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"245","article-title":"Growth of vitamin b12-requiring marine diatoms in mixed laboratory cultures with vitamin b12-producing marine bacteria","volume":"10","author":"Haines","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1126\/science.280.5364.694","article-title":"Microbial control of oceanic carbon flux: The plot thickens","volume":"280","author":"Azam","year":"1998","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0981(98)00130-0","article-title":"Effects of epiphytic bacteria on the growth of the toxic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus (Dinophyceae)","volume":"233","author":"Sakami","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, H., Hua, C., and Tong, M. (2018). Impact of Dinophysis acuminata Feeding Mesodinium rubrum on Nutrient Dynamics and Bacterial Composition in a Microcosm. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10110443"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2016.02.001","article-title":"Mass entrapment and lysis of Mesodinium rubrum cells in mucus threads observed in cultures with Dinophysis","volume":"55","author":"Hansen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2008.00544.x","article-title":"Predation by the toxic dinoflagellate Dinophysis fortii on the ciliate Myrionecta rubra and observation of sequestration of ciliate chloroplasts","volume":"44","author":"Nagai","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Portela, M., Reguera, B., Sibat, M., Altenburger, A., Rodr\u00edguez, F., and Hess, P. (2018). Metabolomic Profiles of Dinophysis acuminata and Dinophysis acuta Using Non-Targeted High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry: Effect of Nutritional Status and Prey. Mar. Drugs, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/md16050143"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2018.06.007","article-title":"Behavioral and mechanistic characteristics of the predator-prey interaction between the dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuminata and the ciliate Mesodinium rubrum","volume":"77","author":"Jiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1007\/s00343-010-9960-y","article-title":"Culture techniques and growth characteristics of Dinophysis acuminata and its prey","volume":"28","author":"Tong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chin. J. Oceanol. Limnol."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Stein, J.R. (1973). Division rates. Handbook of Phycological Methods: Culture Methods and Growth Measurements, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01314358","article-title":"Dynamics and physiology of saxitoxin production by the dinoflagellates Alexandrium spp.","volume":"104","author":"Anderson","year":"1990","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/11\/1\/57\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:27:34Z","timestamp":1760185654000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/11\/1\/57"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,21]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins11010057"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins11010057","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,21]]}}}