{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T20:20:56Z","timestamp":1791231656229,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,9]],"date-time":"2019-04-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1554768000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vascular calcification (VC) is common in dialysis and non-dialysis chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients, even in the early stage of the disease. For this reason, it can be considered a CKD hallmark. VC contributes to cardiovascular disease (CVD) and increased mortality among CKD patients, although it has not been proven. There are more than one type of VC and every form represents a marker of systemic vascular disease and is associated with a higher prevalence of CVD in CKD patients, as shown by several clinical studies. Major risk factors for VC in CKD include: Increasing age, dialysis vintage, hyperphosphatemia (particularly in the setting of intermittent or persistent hypercalcemia), and a positive net calcium and phosphate balance. Excessive oral calcium intake, including calcium-containing phosphate binders, increases the risk for VC. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that there is less VC progression with non-calcium-containing phosphate binders. Unfortunately, until now, a specific therapy to prevent progression or to facilitate regression of VC has been found, beyond careful attention to calcium and phosphate balance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11040213","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,9]],"date-time":"2019-04-09T05:58:07Z","timestamp":1554789487000},"page":"213","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":139,"title":["The Key Role of Phosphate on Vascular Calcification"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8494-6252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Cozzolino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Renal Division, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paola","family":"Ciceri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Renal Research Laboratory, Department of Nephrology, Dialysis and Renal Transplant, Fondazione IRCCS Ca\u2019 Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico &amp; Fondazione D\u2019Amico per la Ricerca sulle Malattie Renali, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Galassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Renal Division, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michela","family":"Mangano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Renal Division, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Carugo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Unit, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irene","family":"Capelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), Nephrology, Dialysis and Renal Transplant Unit, S. Orsola Hospital, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Cianciolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), Nephrology, Dialysis and Renal Transplant Unit, S. Orsola Hospital, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2006.12.017","article-title":"Presence of abdominal aortic calcification is significantly associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in maintenance hemodialysis patients","volume":"49","author":"Okuno","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-6386(96)90363-7","article-title":"Electron beam computed tomography in the evaluation of cardiac calcification in chronic dialysis patients","volume":"27","author":"Braun","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200005183422003","article-title":"Coronary-artery calcification in young adults with end-stage renal disease who are undergoing dialysis","volume":"342","author":"Goodman","year":"2000","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfg414","article-title":"Arterial media calcification in end-stage renal disease: Impact on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality","volume":"18","author":"London","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2016.09.024","article-title":"Vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease: Different bricks in the wall?","volume":"91","author":"Vervloet","year":"2017","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S17","DOI":"10.1111\/hdi.12084","article-title":"Vascular calcification in end-stage renal disease","volume":"17","author":"Jablonski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hemodial. Int."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.06091108","article-title":"Association of serum alkaline phosphatase with coronary artery calcification in maintenance hemodialysis patients","volume":"4","author":"Shantouf","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2002.00170.x","article-title":"Medial artery calcification in ESRD patients is associated with deposition of bone matrix proteins","volume":"61","author":"Moe","year":"2002","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2005.06.008","article-title":"Vascular calcification in uremic conditions: New insights into pathogenesis","volume":"26","author":"Cozzolino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Semin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.2174\/1570161115666170310092202","article-title":"Klotho-FGF23, Cardiovascular Disease, and Vascular Calcification: Black or White?","volume":"16","author":"Cianciolo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.110.234914","article-title":"Arterial calcification in chronic kidney disease: Key roles for calcium and phosphate","volume":"109","author":"Shanahan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E10","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.87.7.e10","article-title":"Phosphate regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell calcification","volume":"87","author":"Jono","year":"2000","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2009121311","article-title":"Klotho deficiency causes vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease","volume":"22","author":"Hu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1724","article-title":"The influence of phosphate, calcium and magnesium on matrix Gla-protein and vascular calcification: A systematic review","volume":"33","author":"Houben","year":"2016","journal-title":"G. Ital. Nefrol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ASN.0000141960.01035.28","article-title":"Human vascular smooth muscle cells undergo vesicle-mediated calcification in response to changes in extracellular calcium and phosphate concentrations: A potential mechanism for accelerated vascular calcification in ESRD","volume":"15","author":"Reynolds","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2016030317","article-title":"Arterial and Cellular Inflammation in Patients with CKD","volume":"28","author":"Verweij","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.116.305720","article-title":"Between Rho(k) and a hard place: The relation between vessel wall stiffness, endothelial contractility, and cardiovascular disease","volume":"116","author":"Huveneers","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.5301\/jn.5000003","article-title":"What would we like to know, and what do we not know about fibroblast growth factor 23?","volume":"24","author":"Cozzolino","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1927","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.V1291927","article-title":"Association of inflammation and malnutrition with cardiac valve calcification in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.986968","article-title":"Intimal smooth muscle cells: The context-dependent origin","volume":"122","author":"Fukuda","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvs115","article-title":"Smooth muscle cell phenotypic switching in atherosclerosis","volume":"95","author":"Gomez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.112.281048","article-title":"Smooth muscle cell plasticity: Fact or fiction?","volume":"112","author":"Nguyen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.114.304000","article-title":"Recent highlights of ATVB: Calcification","volume":"34","author":"Virmani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.04100808","article-title":"Serum phosphorus concentrations and arterial stiffness among individuals with normal kidney function to moderate kidney disease in MESA","volume":"4","author":"Ix","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2017.07.016","article-title":"25-Year Physical Activity Trajectories and Development of Subclinical Coronary Artery Disease as Measured by Coronary Artery Calcium: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study","volume":"92","author":"Laddu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2010.11.073","article-title":"Association of serum phosphate levels with aortic valve sclerosis and annular calcification: The cardiovascular health study","volume":"58","author":"Linefsky","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2008040349","article-title":"Association of serum phosphate with vascular and valvular calcification in moderate CKD","volume":"20","author":"Adeney","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, D., Xie, Q., Ge, X., Yan, H., Tian, J., Kuang, D., Hao, C.M., and Zhu, T. (2015). Hyperphosphatemia as an independent risk factor for coronary artery calcification progression in peritoneal dialysis patients. BMC Nephrol., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12882-015-0103-8"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfv021","article-title":"Con: Vascular calcification is a surrogate marker, but not the cause of ongoing vascular disease, and it is not a treatment target in chronic kidney disease","volume":"30","author":"Zoccali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.115.306256","article-title":"Macrophage Phenotype and Function in Different Stages of Atherosclerosis","volume":"118","author":"Tabas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22144","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M300744200","article-title":"The inhibition of calcium phosphate precipitation by fetuin is accompanied by the formation of a fetuin-mineral complex","volume":"278","author":"Price","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1007\/s00223-016-0167-x","article-title":"Osteonectin (SPARC) Expression in Vascular Calcification: In Vitro and Ex Vivo Studies","volume":"99","author":"Ciceri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Calcif. Tissue Int."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.116.309315","article-title":"Task for Today: Complete the Puzzle of Circulating Stem Cells and the Atherosclerotic Burden","volume":"119","author":"Fadini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1093\/ckj\/sfw145","article-title":"Is chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder associated with the presence of endothelial progenitor cells with a calcifying phenotype?","volume":"10","author":"Cianciolo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Kidney J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921685","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/921685","article-title":"Procalcific phenotypic drift of circulating progenitor cells in type 2 diabetes with coronary artery disease","volume":"2012","author":"Fadini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2008.07.019","article-title":"Osteocalcin expression by circulating endothelial progenitor cells in patients with coronary atherosclerosis","volume":"52","author":"Atkinson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2017.07.019","article-title":"Matrix vesicles induce calcification of recipient vascular smooth muscle cells through multiple signaling pathways","volume":"93","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5002059","article-title":"Mortality effect of coronary calcification and phosphate binder choice in incident hemodialysis patients","volume":"71","author":"Block","year":"2007","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1724","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2002.00625.x","article-title":"Phosphorus and uremic serum up-regulate osteopontin expression in vascular smooth muscle cells","volume":"62","author":"Chen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20120638","article-title":"Human uraemic serum displays calcific potential in vitro that increases with advancing chronic kidney disease","volume":"125","author":"Patidar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1706","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfw293","article-title":"High cut-off dialysis in chronic haemodialysis patients reduces serum procalcific activity","volume":"31","author":"Zickler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciceri, P., Galassi, A., Alfieri, C., Messa, P., and Cozzolino, M. (2019). Uremic Patients with Increased Vascular Calcification Score Have Serum with High Calcific Potential: Role of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Osteoblastic Differentiation and Apoptosis. Blood Purif., 1\u20138.","DOI":"10.1159\/000497229"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvx125","article-title":"Human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived vascular smooth muscle cells: Differentiation and therapeutic potential","volume":"113","author":"Ayoubi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.115.306361","article-title":"Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells in Atherosclerosis","volume":"118","author":"Bennett","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00294","article-title":"Endothelial to Mesenchymal Transition Represents a Key Link in the Interaction between Inflammation and Endothelial Dysfunction","volume":"9","author":"Cho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2013.11.105","article-title":"Cinacalcet ameliorates cardiac fibrosis in uremic hearts through suppression of endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition","volume":"171","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1053\/ajkd.2001.24533","article-title":"Calciphylaxis is associated with hyperphosphatemia and increased osteopontin expression by vascular smooth muscle cells","volume":"37","author":"Ahmed","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-015-2552-6","article-title":"A new in vitro model to delay high phosphate-induced vascular calcification progression","volume":"410","author":"Ciceri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00e9naut, L., Mary, A., Chillon, J.M., Kamel, S., and Massy, Z.A. (2018). The Impact of Uremic Toxins on Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Function. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10060218"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1097\/01.mat.0000202606.44826.6b","article-title":"Cardiac calcifications: Fetuin-A and other risk factors in hemodialysis patients","volume":"52","author":"Coen","year":"2006","journal-title":"ASAIO J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2012.01.097","article-title":"The combination of lanthanum chloride and the calcimimetic calindol delays the progression of vascular smooth muscle cells calcification","volume":"418","author":"Ciceri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1007\/s00223-013-9709-7","article-title":"Lanthanum prevents high phosphate-induced vascular calcification by preserving vascular smooth muscle lineage markers","volume":"92","author":"Ciceri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Calcif. Tissue Int."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"11","article-title":"[Calcified and ossified phlebosclerosis]","volume":"21","author":"Leu","year":"1992","journal-title":"Vasa"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfp362","article-title":"Plasma pyrophosphate and vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease","volume":"25","author":"Sigrist","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2010.461","article-title":"Treatment with pyrophosphate inhibits uremic vascular calcification","volume":"79","author":"Lomashvili","year":"2011","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s003920170041","article-title":"The role of apoptosis in the initiation of vascular calcification","volume":"90","author":"Proudfoot","year":"2001","journal-title":"Z. Kardiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1748","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.783738","article-title":"Dialysis accelerates medial vascular calcification in part by triggering smooth muscle cell apoptosis","volume":"118","author":"Shroff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000020222.63035.C0","article-title":"Advanced coronary and carotid arteriopathy in young adults with childhood-onset chronic renal failure","volume":"106","author":"Oh","year":"2002","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1148\/121.2.315","article-title":"Arterial calcifications in severe chronic renal disease and their relationship to dialysis treatment, renal transplant, and parathyroidectomy","volume":"121","author":"Meema","year":"1976","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2012.482","article-title":"Phosphate-induced autophagy counteracts vascular calcification by reducing matrix vesicle release","volume":"83","author":"Dai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1093\/ckj\/sfu139","article-title":"Iron-based phosphate binders: Do they offer advantages over currently available phosphate binders?","volume":"8","author":"Negri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Kidney J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KDOQI, and National Kidney Foundation (2006). KDOQI clinical practice guidelines and clinical practice recommendations for anemia in chronic kidney disease. Am. J. Kidney Dis., 47, S11\u2013S145.","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2006.03.011"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2008070788","article-title":"Ferritin prevents calcification and osteoblastic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells","volume":"20","author":"Zarjou","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2016.09.071","article-title":"Iron citrate reduces high phosphate-induced vascular calcification by inhibiting apoptosis","volume":"254","author":"Ciceri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.12682","article-title":"Pharmacological induction of ferritin prevents osteoblastic transformation of smooth muscle cells","volume":"20","author":"Becs","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1968","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.01250209","article-title":"Longitudinal relationships among coronary artery calcification, serum phosphorus, and kidney function","volume":"4","author":"Tuttle","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2018.02.009","article-title":"Risk factors for progression of coronary artery calcification in patients with chronic kidney disease: The CRIC study","volume":"271","author":"Bundy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2009.298","article-title":"Incidence and progression of coronary calcification in chronic kidney disease: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis","volume":"76","author":"Kestenbaum","year":"2009","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2012030240","article-title":"Nanoparticle-based test measures overall propensity for calcification in serum","volume":"23","author":"Pasch","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2013060635","article-title":"Serum calcification propensity predicts all-cause mortality in predialysis CKD","volume":"25","author":"Smith","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1159\/000294405","article-title":"Total and individual coronary artery calcium scores as independent predictors of mortality in hemodialysis patients","volume":"31","author":"Shantouf","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1542-4758.2009.00423.x","article-title":"Impact of coronary artery calcification in hemodialysis patients: Risk factors and associations with prognosis","volume":"14","author":"Ohtake","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hemodial. Int."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1662","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfq582","article-title":"Progression of aortic calcification is associated with disorders of mineral metabolism and mortality in chronic dialysis patients","volume":"26","author":"Noordzij","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1542-4758.2011.00571.x","article-title":"Risk factors for progression of aortic arch calcification in patients on maintenance hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hemodial. Int."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2679","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfq089","article-title":"Fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF-23) is independently correlated to aortic calcification in haemodialysis patients","volume":"25","author":"Nasrallah","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ozkok, A., Kekik, C., Karahan, G.E., Sakaci, T., Ozel, A., Unsal, A., and Yildiz, A. (2013). FGF-23 associated with the progression of coronary artery calcification in hemodialysis patients. BMC Nephrol., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2369-14-241"}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/11\/4\/213\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:43:51Z","timestamp":1760186631000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/11\/4\/213"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,9]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins11040213"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins11040213","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,9]]}}}