{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]],"date-time":"2026-06-22T07:28:06Z","timestamp":1782113286638,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,24]],"date-time":"2019-05-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1558656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Zearalenone is a frequent contaminant of cereals and their by-products in regions with a temperate climate. This toxic molecule is produced naturally by Fusarium fungi in crops. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of low zearalenone doses (LOAEL, NOAEL and MABEL) on the intestinal microbiome of gilts on different days of exposure (days 7, 21 and 42). Intestinal contents were sampled from the duodenal cap, the third part of the duodenum, jejunum, caecum and the descending colon. The experiment was performed on 60 clinically healthy gilts with average BW of 14.5 \u00b1 2 kg, divided into three experimental groups and a control group. Group ZEN5 animals were orally administered ZEN at 5 \u03bcg \/kg BW, group ZEN10\u201410 \u03bcg ZEN\/kg BW and group ZEN15\u201415 \u00b5g ZEN\/kg BW. Five gilts from every group were euthanized on analytical dates 1, 2 and 3. Differences in the log values of microbial counts, mainly Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis, were observed between the proximal and distal segments of the intestinal tract on different analytical dates as well as in the entire intestinal tract. Zearalenone affected the colony counts of intestinal microbiota rather than microbiome diversity, and its effect was greatest in groups ZEN10 and ZEN15. Microbial colony counts were similar in groups ZEN5 and C. In the analysed mycobiome, ZEN exerted a stimulatory effect on the log values of yeast and mould counts in all intestinal segments, in particular in the colon, and the greatest increase was noted on the first analytical date.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11050296","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,24]],"date-time":"2019-05-24T11:20:46Z","timestamp":1558696846000},"page":"296","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Time-Dependent Changes in the Intestinal Microbiome of Gilts Exposed to Low Zearalenone Doses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Ciepli\u0144ska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology Laboratory, Non-Public Health Care Centre, Limanowskiego 31A, 10-342 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magdalena","family":"Gaj\u0119cka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"D\u0105browski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Rykaczewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sylwia","family":"Lisieska-\u017bo\u0142nierczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Public Health Care Centre of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration, and the Warmia and Mazury Oncology Centre in Olsztyn, Wojska Polskiego 37, 10-228 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Buli\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, S\u0142oneczna 34, 10-710 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0983-5592","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Zielonka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maciej T.","family":"Gaj\u0119cki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2017.12.008","article-title":"Mycotoxins in dry-cured meats: A review","volume":"111","author":"Montanha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anifeedsci.2014.02.007","article-title":"Occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in European feeding stuffs, assessment of dietary intake by farm animals","volume":"193","author":"Zachariasova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anim. Feed Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"4851","article-title":"Risks for animal health related to the presence of zearalenone and its modified forms in feed","volume":"15","author":"Knutsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins6072064","article-title":"The effect of experimental fusarium mycotoxicosis on microbiota diversity in porcine ascending colon contents","volume":"6","author":"Piotrowska","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciepli\u0144ska, K., Gaj\u0119cka, M., Nowak, A., D\u0105browski, M., Zielonka, \u0141., and Gaj\u0119cki, M.T. (2018). The gentoxicity of caecal water in gilts exposed to low doses of zearalenone. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10090350"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2018.07.013","article-title":"Growth performance, selected blood biochemical parameters and body weight of pre-pubertal gilts fed diets supplemented with different doses of zearalenone (ZEN)","volume":"152","author":"Rykaczewska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2017.11.021","article-title":"Modified mycotoxins: An updated review on their formation, detection, occurrence, and toxic effects","volume":"111","author":"Freire","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2004.10.001","article-title":"Paradigm lost, paradigm found: The re-emergence of hormesis as a fundamental dose response model in the toxicological sciences","volume":"138","author":"Calabrese","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20669","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules201119726","article-title":"The effect of low monotonic doses of zearalenone on selected reproductive tissues in pre-pubertal female dogs\u2014A review","volume":"20","author":"Zielonka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaj\u0119cka, M., Zielonka, \u0141., and Gaj\u0119cki, M. (2017). Activity of zearalenone in the porcine intestinal tract. Molecules, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules22010018"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1515\/pjvs-2016-0022","article-title":"Immunohistochemical evaluation of apoptosis and proliferation in the mucous membrane of selected uterine regions in pre-pubertal bitches exposed to low doses of zearalenone","volume":"19","author":"Stopa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pol. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1006\/rtph.1996.0050","article-title":"Conversion Factors Estimating Indicative Chronic No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Levels from Short-Term Toxicity Data","volume":"23","author":"Kramer","year":"1996","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3210","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins7083210","article-title":"Zearalenone in the Intestinal Tissues of Immature Gilts Exposed per os to Mycotoxins","volume":"7","author":"Zielonka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2011-1050","article-title":"Hormones and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: Low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose responses","volume":"33","author":"Vandenberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins5020396","article-title":"Modulation of intestinal functions following mycotoxin ingestion: Meta-analysis of published experiments in animals","volume":"5","author":"Grenier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.1891","article-title":"On the quantification of intertest variability in ecotoxicity data with application to species sensitivity distributions","volume":"31","author":"Hickey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"293","article-title":"The biotransformation of chosen mycotoxins","volume":"12","author":"Jakimiuk","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pol. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2018.08.002","article-title":"Mycotoxin levels in the digestive tissues of immature gilts exposed to zearalenone and deoxynivalenol","volume":"153","author":"Zielonka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2013.04.006","article-title":"Oral delivery of proteins by biodegradable nanoparticles","volume":"65","author":"Bakhru","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1053\/j.sempedsurg.2013.10.007","article-title":"Neonatal intestinal physiology and failure","volume":"22","author":"Carlson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Semin. Pediatr. Surg."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins6031080","article-title":"Zearalenone, an estrogenic mycotoxin, is an immunotoxic compound","volume":"6","author":"Hueza","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins6051559","article-title":"In vitro induction of erythrocyte phosphatidyloserine translocation by the natural Naphthoquinone Shikonin","volume":"6","author":"Lupescu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Celi, P., Verlhac, V., P\u00e9rez, C.E., Schmeisser, J., and Kluenter, A.M. (2018). Biomarkers of gastrointestinal functionality in animal nutrition and health. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anifeedsci.2018.07.012"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u0105browski, M., Obremski, K., Gaj\u0119cka, M., Gaj\u0119cki, M., and Zielonka, \u0141. (2016). Changes in the subpopulations of porcine peripheral blood lymphocytes induced by exposure to low doses of zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON). Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21050557"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2012.04.009","article-title":"Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus induces CD4+CD8+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs)","volume":"430","author":"Mateu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1515\/bvip-2015-0030","article-title":"An evaluation of the proliferative activity of immunocompetent cells in the jejunal and iliac lymph nodes of prepubertal female wild boars diagnosed with mixed mycotoxicosis","volume":"59","author":"Zielonka","year":"2015","journal-title":"B. Vet. I. Pulawy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anifeedsci.2011.12.014","article-title":"Mycotoxin contamination of the feed supply chain: Implications for animal productivity and feed security","volume":"173","author":"Bryden","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anim. Feed Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alassane-Kpembi, I., Pinton, P., and Oswald, I.P. (2019). Effects of Mycotoxins on the Intestine. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11030159"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2016.04.033","article-title":"Foodomics as part of the host-microbiota-exposome interplay","volume":"147","author":"Putignani","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2018.10.014","article-title":"Microbiome modulates intestinal homeostasis against inflammatory diseases","volume":"205","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Immunol. Immunop."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2017.06.007","article-title":"Using probiotics to improve swine gut health and nutrient utilization","volume":"3","author":"Liao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2018.00060","article-title":"Mycotoxin: Its impact on gut health and microbiota","volume":"8","author":"Liew","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1080\/10937404.2017.1326071","article-title":"Impact of mycotoxins on the intestine: Are mucus and microbiota new targets?","volume":"20","author":"Robert","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2017.12.004","article-title":"Gastrointestinal tract (gut) health in the young pig","volume":"4","author":"Pluske","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livsci.2010.01.010","article-title":"Growth performance, digestibility, gut environment and health status in weaned piglet s fed a diet supplemented with potentially probiotic complexes of lactic acid bacteria","volume":"129","author":"Giang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Livest. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.3109\/10408444.2014.931924","article-title":"Risk assessment in the 21st century: Roadmap and matrix","volume":"44","author":"Embry","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-018-0269-6","article-title":"The dynamics of the piglet gut microbiome during the weaning transition in association with health and nutrition","volume":"9","author":"Guevarra","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"263","article-title":"Zearalenone as a potential allergen in the alimentary tract\u2014A review","volume":"15\/56","author":"Zielonka","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"15","article-title":"Healthy pigs with less use of antibiotics\u2014A nutritional approach in three steps","volume":"27","author":"Rovers","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. Pigs Top."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2011.05074.x","article-title":"Lactic acid bacteria in the inhibition of Fusarium graminearum and deoxynivalenol detoxification","volume":"111","author":"Franco","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2327","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-018-2228-6","article-title":"Chronic ingestion of deoxynivalenol at human dietary levels impairs intestinal homeostasis and gut microbiota in mice","volume":"92","author":"Vignal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"27","article-title":"Human microbiome\u2014Health and disease","volume":"51","author":"Binek","year":"2012","journal-title":"Post. Mikrobiol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"446","article-title":"Microbiome\u2014Its characteristics and the role","volume":"90","author":"Kostro","year":"2015","journal-title":"\u017bycie Wet."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-40232-3.00068-6","article-title":"Chapter 68\u2014Anatomy and Physiology of the Duodenum","volume":"2","author":"Shames","year":"2019","journal-title":"Shackelford\u2019s Surg. Aliment. Tract"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.07.438","article-title":"Escherichia coli used as a biomarker of antimicrobial resistance in pig farms of Southern Brazil","volume":"647","author":"Brisola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2018.02.010","article-title":"Antimicrobial susceptibility of enterococci recovered from healthy cattle, pigs and chickens in nine EU countries (EASSA Study) to critically important antibiotics","volume":"216","author":"Simjee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2016.04.019","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance profiles of coagulase-negative staphylococci in livestock environments","volume":"200","author":"Schoenfelder","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heilmann, C., Ziebuhr, W., and Becker, K. (2018). Are coagulase-negative staphylococci virulent?. Clin. Microbiol. Infec.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2018.11.012"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, W., Ji, X., Zhang, Q., and Yao, W. (2018). Intestinal microbiota ecological response to oral administrations of hydrogen-richwater and lactulose in female piglets fed a fusarium toxin-contaminated diet. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10060246"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Makkar, H.P.S. (2016). Probiotics in animal nutrition e production, impact and regulation. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 179, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etp.2015.11.008","article-title":"Histological structure of duodenum in gilts receiving low doses of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol in feed","volume":"68","author":"Lewczuk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"54","article-title":"Modified mycotoxins\u2014A hidden threats beyond official control","volume":"93","author":"Panasiuk","year":"2018","journal-title":"\u017bycie Wet."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2018.04.001","article-title":"Application of resistant starch in swine and poultry diets with particular reference to gut health and function","volume":"4","author":"Regassa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anifeedsci.2017.05.010","article-title":"Assessing the effect of dietary inulin supplementation on gastrointestinal fermentation, digestibility and growth in pigs: A meta-analysis","volume":"233","author":"Trevisi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anim. Feed Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"407","article-title":"Fermentation of lignocellulose ingredients in vivo and in vitro via using fecal and caecal inoculums of monogastric animals (swine\/turkeys)","volume":"7","author":"Youssef","year":"2018","journal-title":"Beni-Suef Univ. J. Basic Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2016.12.002","article-title":"Pathogenic conversion of coagulase-negative staphylococci","volume":"19","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.12.010","article-title":"Occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus in swine and swine workplace environments on industrial and antibiotic-free hog operations in North Carolina, USA: A One Health pilot study","volume":"163","author":"Davis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.4141\/A02-043","article-title":"Effect of dietary cereal on intestinal bacterial populations in weaned pigs","volume":"82","author":"Drew","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livsci.2016.11.006","article-title":"Effect of swine based probiotic on performance, diarrhoea scores, intestinal microbiota and gut health of grower-finisher crossbred pigs","volume":"195","author":"Dowarah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Livest. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2961","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02459-09","article-title":"Prevalence and Diversity of Toxigenic Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium difficile among Swine Herds in the Midwest","volume":"76","author":"Baker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microb."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2018.05.006","article-title":"The emergence of Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 078 in piglets in the Czech Republic clusters with Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 078 isolates from Germany, Japan and Taiwan","volume":"308","author":"Krutova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2281","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins5112281","article-title":"The expression of type-1 and type-2 nitric oxide synthase in selected tissues of the gastrointestinal tract during mixed mycotoxicosis","volume":"5","author":"Stopa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"90","article-title":"Evaluation of  Fusarium spp. pathogenicity in plant and murine models","volume":"50","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Argent. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mycmed.2018.08.002","article-title":"The dietary modification and treatment of intestinal Candida overgrowth\u2014A pilot study","volume":"28","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. De Mycol. M\u00e9d."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reddy, K.E., Jeong, J.Y., Song, J., Lee, Y., Lee, H.J., Kim, D.W., Jung, H.Y., Kim, K.H., Kim, M., and Oh, Y.K. (2018). Colon microbiome of pigs fed diet contaminated with commercial purified deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10090347"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.steroids.2014.08.025","article-title":"Steroid plant hormones: Effects outside plant kingdom","volume":"97","author":"Zhabinskii","year":"2015","journal-title":"Steroids"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2007.10.002","article-title":"Zero tolerances in food and animal feed-Are there any scientific alternatives? A European point of view on an international controversy","volume":"175","author":"Heberer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2004.10.006","article-title":"Optimising the design of preliminary toxicity studies for pharmaceutical safety testing in the dog","volume":"41","author":"Smith","year":"2005","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Gaj\u0119cki, M. (2013, January 30). The effect of experimentally induced Fusarium mycotoxicosis on selected diagnostic and morphological parameters of the porcine digestive tract. Proceedings of the Final Report for the National Centre for Research and Development in Warsaw, Poland, Development Project NR12-0080-10 entitled, Warsaw, Poland."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2014.03.005","article-title":"In vitro investigation of toxicological interactions between the fusariotoxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone","volume":"84","author":"Bensassi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2018.12.052","article-title":"Insights into cellular metabolic pathways of the combined toxicity responses of Caco-2 cells exposed to deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and Aflatoxin B1","volume":"126","author":"Ji","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/11\/5\/296\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:54:46Z","timestamp":1760187286000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/11\/5\/296"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,24]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins11050296"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins11050296","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,24]]}}}