{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T09:12:52Z","timestamp":1790673172092,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,28]],"date-time":"2020-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1580169600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009111","name":"Institut Fran\u00e7ais de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2011\/203\/2100482701"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2011\/203\/2100482701"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009111","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007546","name":"Agence Nationale de S\u00e9curit\u00e9 Sanitaire de l\u2019Alimentation, de l\u2019Environnement et du Travail","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2011\/203\/2100482701"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2011\/203\/2100482701"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007546","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pinnatoxin G (PnTx-G) is a marine cyclic imine toxin produced by the dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum, frequently detected in edible shellfish from Ingril Lagoon (France). As other pinnatoxins, to date, no human poisonings ascribed to consumption of PnTx-G contaminated seafood have been reported, despite its potent antagonism at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and its high and fast-acting toxicity after intraperitoneal or oral administration in mice. The hazard characterization of PnTx-G by oral exposure is limited to a single acute toxicity study recording lethality and clinical signs in non-fasted mice treated by gavage or through voluntary food ingestion, which showed differences in PnTx-G toxic potency. Thus, an acute toxicity study was carried out using 3 h-fasted CD-1 female mice, administered by gavage with PnTx-G (8\u2013450 \u00b5g kg\u22121). At the dose of 220 \u00b5g kg\u22121 and above, the toxin induced a rapid onset of clinical signs (piloerection, prostration, hypothermia, abdominal breathing, paralysis of the hind limbs, and cyanosis), leading to the death of mice within 30 min. Except for moderate mucosal degeneration in the small intestine recorded at doses of 300 \u00b5g kg\u22121, the toxin did not induce significant morphological changes in the other main organs and tissues, or alterations in blood chemistry parameters. This acute oral toxicity study allowed to calculate an oral LD50 for PnTx-G equal to 208 \u03bcg kg\u22121 (95% confidence limits: 155\u2013281 \u00b5g kg\u22121) and to estimate a provisional NOEL of 120 \u00b5g kg\u22121.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12020087","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,28]],"date-time":"2020-01-28T09:37:09Z","timestamp":1580204229000},"page":"87","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Acute Oral Toxicity of Pinnatoxin G in Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2909-6603","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvio","family":"Sosa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, 34127 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4306-7411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Pelin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, 34127 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6901-5866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica","family":"Cavion","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, 34127 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5485-7611","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabienne","family":"Herv\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Centre Atlantique, 44311 Nantes CEDEX, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9047-1345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philipp","family":"Hess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Centre Atlantique, 44311 Nantes CEDEX, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aurelia","family":"Tubaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, 34127 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"33","article-title":"The isolation and bioactivities of pinnatoxin","volume":"9","author":"Zheng","year":"1990","journal-title":"Chin. J. Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00108a043","article-title":"Pinnatoxin-A a toxic amphoteric macrocycle from the okinawan bivalve Pinna muricata","volume":"117","author":"Uemura","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. 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