{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T22:01:29Z","timestamp":1790805689879,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,31]],"date-time":"2020-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1585612800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"French Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer (LNCC)","award":["Espoir de la recherche"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Espoir de la recherche"]}]},{"name":"iXcore foundation for Research","award":["Price 2015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Price 2015"]}]},{"name":"Institut national de recherche pour l\u2019agriculture, l\u2019alimentation et l\u2019environnement","award":["Mica jeune \u00e9quipe 2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Mica jeune \u00e9quipe 2017"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pathogenic bacteria secrete a variety of proteins that manipulate host cell function by targeting components of the plasma membrane, cytosol, or organelles. In the last decade, several studies identified bacterial factors acting within the nucleus on gene expression or other nuclear processes, which has led to the emergence of a new family of effectors called \u201cnucleomodulins\u201d. In human and animal pathogens, Listeria monocytogenes for Gram-positive bacteria and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Chlamydia trachomatis, Legionella pneumophila, Shigella flexneri, and Escherichia coli for Gram-negative bacteria, have led to pioneering discoveries. In this review, we present these paradigms and detail various mechanisms and core elements (e.g., DNA, histones, epigenetic regulators, transcription or splicing factors, signaling proteins) targeted by nucleomodulins. We particularly focus on nucleomodulins interacting with epifactors, such as LntA of Listeria and ankyrin repeat- or tandem repeat-containing effectors of Rickettsiales, and nucleomodulins from various bacterial species acting as post-translational modification enzymes. The study of bacterial nucleomodulins not only generates important knowledge about the control of host responses by microbes but also creates new tools to decipher the dynamic regulations that occur in the nucleus. This research also has potential applications in the field of biotechnology. Finally, this raises questions about the epigenetic effects of infectious diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12040220","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,2]],"date-time":"2020-04-02T13:39:34Z","timestamp":1585834774000},"page":"220","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":69,"title":["Bacterial Factors Targeting the Nucleus: The Growing Family of Nucleomodulins"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0525-0848","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H\u00e9l\u00e8ne","family":"Bierne","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Epigenetics and Cellular Microbiology Team, F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0407-5099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Renaud","family":"Pourpre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Epigenetics and Cellular Microbiology Team, F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Green, E.R., and Mecsas, J. 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