{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,25]],"date-time":"2026-10-25T02:39:06Z","timestamp":1792895946680,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,8]],"date-time":"2020-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1602115200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Central Public-interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund and the National Key Research and Development Program of China.","award":["S2019XTCG01 and 2019YFC1604500"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S2019XTCG01 and 2019YFC1604500"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mycotoxigenic fungi and their toxins are a global concern, causing huge economic and health impacts in developing countries such as Ethiopia, where the mycotoxin control system is inadequate. This work aimed to review the occurrences of agriculturally essential fungi such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium and their major mycotoxins in Ethiopian food\/feedstuffs. The incidents of crucial toxins, including aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2, M1), fumonisins (B1, B2), zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin A, were studied. The impacts of chronic aflatoxin exposure on liver cancer risks, synergy with chronic hepatitis B infection, and possible links with Ethiopian childhood malnutrition were thoroughly examined. In addition, health risks of other potential mycotoxin exposure are also discussed, and the impacts of unsafe level of mycotoxin contaminations on economically essential export products and livestock productions were assessed. Feasible mycotoxin mitigation strategies such as biocontrol methods and binding agents (bentonite) were recommended because they are relatively cheap for low-income farmers and widely available in Ethiopia, respectively. Moreover, Ethiopian mycotoxin regulations, storage practice, adulteration practice, mycotoxin tests, and knowledge gaps among value chain actors were highlighted. Finally, sustained public awareness was suggested, along with technical and human capacity developments in the food control sector.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12100648","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,8]],"date-time":"2020-10-08T08:52:41Z","timestamp":1602147161000},"page":"648","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["Mycotoxins in Ethiopia: A Review on Prevalence, Economic and Health Impacts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8195-3804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Firew Tafesse","family":"Mamo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China"},{"name":"Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar 79, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Birhan Addisie","family":"Abate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute, Addis Ababa 5954, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4046-4657","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kassahun","family":"Tesfaye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute, Addis Ababa 5954, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chengrong","family":"Nie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hocking, A.D., Pitt, J.I., Samson, R.A., and Thrane, U. (2006). Important mycotoxins and the fungi which produce them. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Springer Science and Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-387-28391-9"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Occurrence, Importance and Control of Mycotoxins: A review","volume":"2","author":"Marta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cogent Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"5","article-title":"Food, fungi and mycotoxins: An update","volume":"32","author":"Hocking","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mycology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins2040572","article-title":"Real and perceived risks for mycotoxin contamination in foods and feeds: Challenges for food safety control","volume":"2","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxins (Basel)"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Wild, C.P., Miller, J.D., and Groopman, J.D. (2015). Mycotoxin Control in Low- and Middle Income Countries, IARC Press."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jscs.2010.06.006","article-title":"Impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals","volume":"15","author":"Zain","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Saudi Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-018-6164-4","article-title":"Impaired growth in rural Gambian infants exposed to aflatoxin: A prospective cohort study","volume":"18","author":"Watson","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-4337.2009.00094.x","article-title":"Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Present Status and Future Concerns","volume":"9","author":"Bhat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2016.07.039","article-title":"Mycotoxins in Sub-Saharan Africa: Present situation, socio-economic impact, awareness, and outlook","volume":"72","author":"Udomkun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Bhatnagar, D., Bryden, W., de Koe, W., Gilbert, J., and Pohland, A.E. (2003). Mycotoxins: Risks in PLANT, Animal, and Human Systems, Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Press. Available online: www.cast-science.org."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2017.03.012","article-title":"Mycotoxin occurrence in grains and the role of postharvest management as a mitigation strategies: A review","volume":"78","author":"Neme","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"OECD\/FAO (2016). Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa: Prospects and challenges for the next decades. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2016\u20132025, OECD Publishing."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.13-0563","article-title":"An Overview on Mycotoxin Contamination of Foods in Africa","volume":"76","author":"Darwish","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2019.106975","article-title":"Current status of major mycotoxins contamination in food and feed in Africa","volume":"110","author":"Kebede","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.0901388","article-title":"Global burden of Aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma: A risk assessment","volume":"118","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2009.07.010","article-title":"How will climate change affect mycotoxins in food?","volume":"43","author":"Paterson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.3920\/WMJ2016.2088","article-title":"Assessment of mothers\u2019 knowledge and practice towards aflatoxin contamination in complementary foods in Ethiopia: From pre-harvest to household","volume":"9","author":"Beyene","year":"2016","journal-title":"World Mycotoxin J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1080\/14735903.2012.751701","article-title":"Roles of extension and ethno-religious networks in acceptance of resource-conserving agriculture among Ethiopian farmers","volume":"11","author":"Todo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"World Bank (2017). Integrated Surveys on Agriculture Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey (ESS), World Bank. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldbank.org."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"FAO (2018). Small Family Farms Country Factsheet: Ethiopia, FAO. Available online: www.fao.org\/."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"FAO (2015). The Economic Lives of Smallholder Farmers, An Analysis Based on Household Data from Nine Countries; FAO. Available online: www.fao.org\/publications."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"47","article-title":"A preliminary study on the aflatoxin content of selected Ethiopian foods","volume":"19","author":"Besrat","year":"1981","journal-title":"Ethiop. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"76","article-title":"Mycotoxins and Surface and Internal Fungi of Maize From Ethiopia","volume":"10","author":"Ayalew","year":"2010","journal-title":"Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2012.08.023","article-title":"Natural occurrence of aflatoxins in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) from eastern Ethiopia","volume":"30","author":"Chala","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1080\/19393210.2016.1216468","article-title":"Aspergillus and aflatoxin in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and groundnut cake in Eastern Ethiopia","volume":"9","author":"Mohammed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part B Surveill."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2020.107163","article-title":"Mycotoxins in Ethiopia: Current status, implications to food safety and mitigation strategies","volume":"113","author":"Ayelign","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pitt, J.I., and Hocking, A.D. (2009). Fungi and Food Spoilage, Springer Science and Business Media. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-92207-2"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1080\/21501203.2019.1604575","article-title":"Mycotoxin production by three different toxigenic fungi genera on formulated abalone feed and the effect of an aquatic environment on fumonisins","volume":"11","author":"Beukes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mycology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2017.11.015","article-title":"Probability models for growth and a flatoxin B1 production as affected by intraspecies variability in Aspergillus flavus","volume":"72","author":"Berman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Microbiol. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pettersson, O.V., and Leong, S.L. (2011). Fungal Xerophiles (Osmophiles). Encyclopedia of Life Science, eLS (Microbiology), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470015902.a0000376.pub2"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agriopoulou, S., Stamatelopoulou, E., and Varzakas, T. (2020). Advances in Occurrence, Importance, and Mycotoxin Control Strategies: Prevention and Detoxification in Foods. Foods, 137.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9020137"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benkerroum, N. (2020). Aflatoxins: Producing-Molds, Structure, Health Issues and Incidence in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201911.0350.v3"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1080\/19393210.2017.1408698","article-title":"Multimycotoxin and fungal analysis of maize grains from south and southwestern Ethiopia","volume":"11","author":"Getachew","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part B Surveill."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.simyco.2018.06.001","article-title":"Taxonomy of Aspergillus section Flavi and their production of aflatoxins, ochratoxins and other mycotoxins","volume":"63","author":"Frisvad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stud. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malir, F., Ostry, V., Pfohl-leszkowicz, A., Malir, J., and Toman, J. (2016). Ochratoxin A: 50 Years of Research. Toxins (Basel), 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8070191"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.108242","article-title":"Influence of water activity and temperature on growth and production of trichothecenes by Fusarium graminearum sensu stricto and related species in maize grains","volume":"305","author":"Gomez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perincherry, L., Lalak-Ka\u0144czugowska, J., and St\u0119pie\u0144, \u0141. (2019). Fusarium-Produced Mycotoxins in Plant-Pathogen Interactions. Toxins (Basel), 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11110664"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1494","DOI":"10.2135\/cropsci2014.06.0428","article-title":"Genome-wide Association Mapping of Fusarium Head Blight Resistance and Agromorphological Traits in Barley Landraces from Ethiopia and Eritrea","volume":"55","author":"Mamo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crop Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"183","article-title":"Assessment of Wheat Diseases in South Omo Zone of Ethiopia","volume":"4","author":"Mitiku","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"MOE (Ministry of Agriculture) (2018, March 02). Agro-Ecological Zones of Ethiopia, Available online: http:\/\/www.moa.gov.et\/web\/guest\/resources."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deressa, T.T. (2007). Measuring the Economic Impact of Climate Change on Ethiopian Agriculture: Ricardian Approach, World Bank. Available online: https:\/\/documents.worldbank.org\/en\/publication\/documentsreports\/documentdetail\/143291468035673156\/.","DOI":"10.1596\/1813-9450-4342"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"CSA (2018, June 17). Area and Production of Major Crops in Ethiopia (2017\/18), Available online: www.csa.gov.et."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.1274","article-title":"Review on contribution of indigenous food preparation and preservation techniques to attainment of food security in Ethiopian","volume":"8","author":"Kuyu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodpol.2018.01.004","article-title":"The impacts of postharvest storage innovations on food security and welfare in Ethiopia","volume":"75","author":"Tesfaye","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Policy"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.31782\/IJCRR.2019.11213","article-title":"Fungal Infections and Aflatoxin Contamination in Maize Grains Collected from West Showa and East Wallega","volume":"11","author":"Yilma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Curr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_46.1","unstructured":"EC (2010). European Commission, amending Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_46.2","unstructured":"(EC) No 1881\/2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs as regards aflatoxins. Off. J. Eur. Union, 165, 8-12."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1080\/19393210.2016.1184190","article-title":"Aflatoxin B1 and total fumonisin contamination and their producing fungi in fresh and stored sorghum grain in East Hararghe, Ethiopia","volume":"9","author":"Taye","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part B Surveill."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"EC (2007). Commission Regulation (EC) No 1126\/2007 of 28 September 2007 amending Regulation (EC) No 1881\/2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs as regards Fusarium toxins in maize and maize products. Off. J. Eur. Union, 1126, 14\u201317."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"1","article-title":"Study on Aspergillus Species and Aflatoxin Levels in Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) Stored for Different Period and Storage System in Kewet Districts, Northern Shewa, Ethiopia","volume":"2","author":"Geremew","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"1","article-title":"Aspergillus species and Aflatoxin Contamination of Pre and Post-Harvest Maize Grain in West Gojam, Ethiopia","volume":"2","author":"Assaye","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.5897\/AJMR12.2078","article-title":"Incidence of Aspergillus contamination of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) in Eastern Ethiopia","volume":"8","author":"Mohammed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Afr. J. Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"14829","article-title":"Occurrence of Mycotoxins in farm-Stored Wheat in Ethiopia","volume":"19","author":"Worku","year":"2019","journal-title":"Afr. J. Agric. Nutr. Dev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1186\/s40064-016-2485-x","article-title":"Fungal infection and aflatoxin contamination in maize collected from Gedeo zone, Ethiopia","volume":"5","author":"Chauhan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Springerplus"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"1","article-title":"Level of aflatoxins in industrially brewed local and imported beers collected from Ethiopia market","volume":"4","author":"Nigussie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogent Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s10658-016-0987-6","article-title":"Natural occurrence of Fusarium species and fumonisin on maize grains in Ethiopia","volume":"147","author":"Tsehaye","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Plant Pathol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1080\/19393210.2018.1437784","article-title":"Total aflatoxins in complementary foods produced at community levels using locally available ingredients in Ethiopia","volume":"11","author":"Ayelign","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part B Surveill."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.3920\/WMJ2017.2175","article-title":"An HPLC-FLD method to measure ochratoxin A in teff (Eragrostis tef) and wheat (Triticum spp.) destined for the local Ethiopian market","volume":"11","author":"Geremew","year":"2017","journal-title":"World Mycotoxin J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2016.04.025","article-title":"Occurrence of toxigenic fungi and ochratoxin A in Ethiopian coffee for local consumption","volume":"69","author":"Geremew","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2014.04.018","article-title":"Multimycotoxin analysis of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) and finger millet (Eleusine coracana L. Garten) from Ethiopia","volume":"45","author":"Chala","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fgb.2012.06.011","article-title":"Production of M-\/GM-group aflatoxins catalyzed by the OrdA enzyme in aflatoxin biosynthesis","volume":"49","author":"Yabe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Fungal Genet. Biol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4419","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.8293","article-title":"Occurrence of multiple mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites in animal feed and maize samples from Egypt using LC-MS\/MS","volume":"97","author":"Abdallah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"37","article-title":"Quantitation of multiple mycotoxins and cyanogenic glucosides in cassava samples from Tanzania and Rwanda by an LC-MS\/MS-based multi-toxin method","volume":"32","author":"Sulyok","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part A"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"243","article-title":"Screening of aflatoxins in Shiro and ground red pepper in Addis Ababa","volume":"34","author":"Fufa","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ethiop. J. Heal. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s11046-006-0027-8","article-title":"Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in staple cereals from Ethiopia","volume":"162","author":"Ayalew","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"1860","article-title":"Ochratoxin A and human health risk: A review of the evidence","volume":"55","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) (2002). Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; Some Traditional Herbal Medicines, Some Mycotoxins, Naphthalene and Styrene, IARC Press."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"68","article-title":"Association of Coffee Bean Defects with Ochratoxin A Contamination in the Samples","volume":"6","author":"Biru","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ethiop. J. Sci. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Behnke, R., and Metaferia, F. (2013). The Contribution of Livestock to the Ethiopian Economy\u2014Part II, Inter-Governmental Authority on Development. Working Paper No. 02\u201311."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0366.2007.00145.x","article-title":"Ethiopia\u2019s Coffee Sector: A Bitter or Better Future?","volume":"7","author":"Petit","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Agrar. Chang."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Tefera, A. (2015). Ethiopia Coffee Annual Report, Global Agricultural Information Network. GAIN Report Number: ET1514."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palumbo, R., Crisci, A., Ven, A., Abrahantes, C., Dorne, J., Battilani, P., and Toscano, P. (2020). Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Feed and Food. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8010074"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"CDC (2004). Outbreak of Aflatoxin Poisoning Eastern and Central Provinces, Kenya, January\u2013July 2004, CDC."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2762","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02370-06","article-title":"Outbreak of an acute aflatoxicosis in Kenya in 2004: Identification of the causal agent","volume":"73","author":"Probst","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mupunga, I., Mngqawa, P., and Katerere, D.R. (2017). Peanuts, aflatoxins and undernutrition in children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9121287"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Okoth, S. (2016). Improving the Evidence Base on Aflatoxin Contamination and Exposure in Africa, The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, CTA."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12410","article-title":"Aflatoxin levels in chronic hepatitis B patients with cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma in Bal\u0131kesir, Turkey","volume":"22","author":"Basaran","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.30782","article-title":"Aflatoxin B1 exposure increases the risk of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B virus carriers","volume":"141","author":"Chu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"37","article-title":"Hepatitis B virus infection among people attending the voluntary counselling and testing centre and anti-retroviral therapy clinic of St Paul\u2019s General Specialised Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia","volume":"84","author":"Shimelis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magnus, S., Orlien, S., Ismael, N.Y., Ahmed, T.A., Berhe, N., Lauritzen, T., Roald, B., Goldin, R.D., Stene-johansen, K., and Dyrhol-riise, A.M. (2018). Unexplained chronic liver disease in Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study. BMC Gastroenterol., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-018-0755-5"},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"2557","article-title":"Reviews in basic and clinical gastroenterology","volume":"132","author":"Serag","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"1","article-title":"Esophageal cancer in Mozambique: Should mycotoxins be a concern?","volume":"8688","author":"Come","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pan Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12334","article-title":"Exposure, Occurrence, and Chemistry of Fumonisins and their Cryptic Derivatives","volume":"17","author":"Braun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"1","article-title":"Epidemiology of Esophageal Cancer (EC) in Oromia Region, Ethiopia 2016: A 4-Year Medical Record Review","volume":"4","author":"Bulcha","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Glob. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.4314\/ecajs.v21i2.5","article-title":"Risk Factors Associated with Oesophageal Malignancy among Ethiopian Patients: A Case Control Study","volume":"21","author":"Shewaye","year":"2016","journal-title":"East Cent. Afr. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ishikawa, A.T., Takabayashi-Yamashita, C.R., Ono, E.Y.S., Bagatin, A.K., Rigobello, F.F., Kawamura, O., Hirooka, E.Y., and Itano, E.N. (2016). Exposure Assessment of Infants to Aflatoxin M1 through Consumption of Breast Milk and Infant. Toxins (Basel), 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8090246"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1159\/000365126","article-title":"Mycotoxin exposure and infant and young child growth in Africa: What do we know?","volume":"64","author":"Lombard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.13457","article-title":"Aflatoxin exposure in pregnant women of mixed status of human immunodeficiency virus infection and rate of gestational weight gain: A Ugandan cohort study","volume":"25","author":"Lauer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"740","article-title":"Aflatoxins and growth impairment: A review","volume":"41","author":"Khlangwisetl","year":"2011","journal-title":"Informa"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1606","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2017.1350290","article-title":"Assessment of aflatoxin exposure among young children in Ethiopia using urinary biomarkers","volume":"34","author":"Ayelign","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam.Part A Chem. Anal. Control. Expo. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Central Statistical Agency (CSA), and ICF (2016). Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey 2016, ICF. Available online: https:\/\/microdata.worldbank.org\/."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) (2020, August 20). EU Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed. Available online: https:\/\/webgate.ec.europa.eu\/rasff-window\/porta."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"(2018, July 16). Ethiopian Capital News Letter Ethiopia to Use Aflasafe Technology to Reduce Aflatoxin in Red Pepper. Available online: https:\/\/www.capitalethiopia.com\/capital\/ethiopia-use-aflasafe-technology-reduce-aflatoxin-red-pepper."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"ENTAG (2018). Reopening the European Spice Market for Ethiopian Exporters, ENTAG. Available online: http:\/\/entag.org\/."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Worku, A., and Fentahun, T. (2018). Aflatoxin Related Challenges and Mitigation Strategies of Ethiopia in Spices, Herbs and Pulses, Domestic and International Markets, Ethio- Netherland Trade for Agricultural Growth. Available online: http:\/\/entag.org\/."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"(2017, August 12). The Reporter News Spice Exporters Fear Losing EU Markets. Available online: https:\/\/www.thereporterethiopia.com\/content\/spice-exporters-fear-losing-eu-markets."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Lloyd, J., and Teshome, B. (2019, July 20). Foreign Exchange Allocation and Access for Businesses in Ethiopia, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/dfid-research-outputs\/."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"1","article-title":"Spatial analysis of cattle and shoat population in Ethiopia: Growth trend, distribution and market access","volume":"3","author":"Leta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Shapiro, B.I., Gebru, G., Desta, S., Negassa, A., Nigussie, K., Aboset, G., and Mechale, H. (2017). Ethiopia Livestock Sector Analysis, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). ILRI Project Report."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2015.06.060","article-title":"Aflatoxin contamination of milk and dairy feeds in the Greater Addis Ababa milk shed, Ethiopia","volume":"59","author":"Gizachew","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinotti, L., Ottoboni, M., Giromini, C., Orto, V.D., and Cheli, F. (2016). Mycotoxin Contamination in the EU Feed Supply Chain: A Focus on Cereal Byproducts. Toxins (Basel), 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8020045"},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"(2017, December 15). Addis Standards Magazine December 2017. Available online: https:\/\/twitter.com\/addisstandard\/status\/943838250820669441."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (2003). Worldwide Regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed 2003. FAO Food Nutr. Pap., 81, 1\u2013165."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-007-1317-9","article-title":"Regulations relating to mycotoxins in food: Perspectives in a global and European context","volume":"389","author":"Schothorst","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms10010062","article-title":"An overview of conventional and emerging analytical methods for the determination of mycotoxins","volume":"10","author":"Prosen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2174\/1874842201603010001","article-title":"Principle, Instrumentation, and Applications of UPLC: A Novel Technique of Liquid Chromatography","volume":"3","author":"Chawla","year":"2016","journal-title":"Open Chem. J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-012-6033-4","article-title":"Lateral-flow immunoassays for mycotoxins and phycotoxins: A review","volume":"405","author":"Anfossi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"931","article-title":"Stakeholders\u2019 awareness and knowledge about aflatoxin contamination of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) andassociated factors in Eastern Ethiopia","volume":"4","author":"Guchi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry) (2015). Spice Industry Strategic Plan (2015\u20132025), EMI."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"EBT (Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute) (2019). Aflatoxin Project Progress Report and Personal Communication, EBT."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2017.01.008","article-title":"Innovative technologies to manage aflatoxins in foods and feeds and the profitability of application\u2014A review","volume":"76","author":"Udomkun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baholet, D., Kolackova, I., Kalhotka, L., Skladanka, J., and Haninec, P. (2019). Effect of Species, Fertilization and Harvest Date on Microbial Composition and Mycotoxin Content in Forage. Agriculture, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture9050102"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tucker, J.R., Badea, A., Blagden, R., Pleskach, K., Tittlemier, S.A., and Fernando, W.G.D. (2019). Deoxynivalenol-3-Glucoside Content Is Highly Associated with Deoxynivalenol Levels in Two-Row Barley Genotypes of Importance to Canadian Barley Breeding Programs. Toxins (Basel), 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11060319"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2015.01.021","article-title":"Limited survey of deoxynivalenol in wheat from different crop rotation fi elds in Yangtze-Huaihe river basin region of China","volume":"53","author":"Nimal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1094\/PDIS-03-19-0575-RE","article-title":"The Atoxigenic Biocontrol Product Aflasafe SN01 Is a Valuable Tool to Mitigate Aflatoxin Contamination of Both Maize and Groundnut Cultivated in Senegal","volume":"104","author":"Senghor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Plant Dis."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.05.016","article-title":"Non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus as potential biocontrol agents to reduce aflatoxin contamination in peanuts harvested in Northern Argentina","volume":"231","author":"Barros","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stepman, F. (2018). Scaling-Up the Impact of Aflatoxin Research in Africa. The Role of Social Sciences Francois. Toxin Rev., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10040136"},{"key":"ref_117","unstructured":"(2018, August 25). The Reporter News Institute Finds High-Level of Aflatoxins Perilous to Health, Economy. Available online: https:\/\/www.thereporterethiopia.com\/article\/institute-finds-high-level-aflatoxins-perilous-health-economy."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2020.1766702","article-title":"Tri-octahedral bentonites as potential technological feed additive for Fusarium mycotoxin reduction","volume":"37","author":"Sanchis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part A"},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"23","article-title":"Adsorption of Zearalenone on Clay and Treated Clay Materials in Aqueous Solutions","volume":"24","author":"Chemicals","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins3060551","article-title":"Aflatoxin toxicity reduction in feed by enhanced binding to surface-modified clay additives","volume":"3","author":"Jaynes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxins (Basel)"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3455","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins7093455","article-title":"Effects of a calcium bentonite clay in diets containing aflatoxin when measuring liver residues of aflatoxin B1in starter broiler chicks","volume":"7","author":"Fowler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxins (Basel)"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2013-7842","article-title":"Transfer of dietary aflatoxin B1 to milk aflatoxin M1 and effect of inclusion of adsorbent in the diet of dairy cows","volume":"98","author":"Xiong","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2013.11.028","article-title":"Clay minerals as adsorbents of aflatoxin M1from contaminated milk and effects on milk quality","volume":"88\u201389","author":"Carraro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1023\/B:MYCO.0000020587.93872.59","article-title":"Aflatoxin Binders II: Reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by sequestering agents of cows consuming aflatoxin in feed","volume":"157","author":"Diaz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"FDA (Food and Drug Administration) (2019, March 23). 21CFR184.1155, Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Volume 3, Revised 1 April 2017, Available online: http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/Databases\/ucm135680.htm."},{"key":"ref_126","unstructured":"Tessema, M. (2017, December 12). Occurrence of Bentonite in Ethiopia, Available online: http:\/\/www.gse.gov.et\/."},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"Taffesse, A.S., Dorosh, P., and Asrat, S. (2011). Crop Production in Ethiopia: Regional Patterns and Trends, International Food Policy Research Institute. Available online: https:\/\/www.ifpri.org\/."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/12\/10\/648\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:17:20Z","timestamp":1760177840000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/12\/10\/648"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,8]]},"references-count":128,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins12100648"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins12100648","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,8]]}}}