{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T21:07:02Z","timestamp":1780088822966,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,18]],"date-time":"2021-01-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610928000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018YFD0500500"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFD0500500"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31902256"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31902256"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the Foundation for Innovation Research Group in Chongqing Universities","award":["CXQT20004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CXQT20004"]}]},{"name":"the earmarked fund for China Agriculture Research System","award":["CARS37"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CARS37"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive opportunistic pathogen which causes infections in a variety of vertebrates. Virulence factors are the main pathogenesis of S. aureus as a pathogen, which induce the host\u2019s innate and adaptive immune responses. Toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1) is one of the most important virulence factors of S. aureus. However, the role of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) in TSST-1-induced innate immune response is still unclear. Here, purified recombinant TSST-1 (rTSST-1) was prepared and used to stimulate mouse peritoneal macrophages. The results showed that under the action of adenosine-triphosphate (ATP), rTSST-1 significantly induced interleukin-1\u03b2 (IL-1\u03b2) and tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 (TNF-\u03b1) production in mouse macrophages and the production was dose-dependent. In addition, rTSST-1+ATP-stimulated cytokine production in macrophage depends on the activation of toll like receptor 4 (TLR4), but not TLR2 on the cells. Furthermore, the macrophages of NLRP3\u2212\/\u2212 mice stimulated with rTSST-1+ATP showed significantly low levels of IL-1\u03b2 production compared to that of wild-type mice. These results demonstrated that TSST-1 can induce the expression of inflammatory cytokines in macrophages via the activation of the TLR4 and NLRP3 signaling pathways. Our study provides new information about the mechanism of the TSST-1-inducing host\u2019s innate immune responses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13010068","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]],"date-time":"2021-01-21T02:36:05Z","timestamp":1611196565000},"page":"68","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin 1 Induces Immune Response via the Activation of NLRP3 Inflammasome"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Lianci","family":"Peng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiali","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"},{"name":"Chongqing Animal Disease Prevention and Control Center, Chongqing 401120, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tingting","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dongyi","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fengqing","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qingyuan","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuanyi","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dong-Liang","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"},{"name":"Department of Zoonoses, Kitasato University School of Veterinary Medicine, Towada 034-8628, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rendong","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Animal Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"},{"name":"Immunology Research Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing 402460, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1086\/377308","article-title":"Vaccination with nontoxic mutant toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 protects against Staphylococcus aureus infection","volume":"188","author":"Hu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. 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