{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T21:59:10Z","timestamp":1792101550614,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]],"date-time":"2021-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613520000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003243","name":"Ministerstvo Zdravotnictv\u00ed Cesk\u00e9 Republiky","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NV16-30210A; NV17-29452A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NV16-30210A; NV17-29452A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003243","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In dystonic and spastic movement disorders, however different in their pathophysiological mechanisms, a similar impairment of sensorimotor control with special emphasis on afferentation is assumed. Peripheral intervention on afferent inputs evokes plastic changes within the central sensorimotor system. Intramuscular application of botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) is a standard evidence-based treatment for both conditions. Apart from its peripheral action on muscle spindles, a growing body of evidence suggests that BoNT-A effects could also be mediated by changes at the central level including cerebral cortex. We review recent studies employing electrophysiology and neuroimaging to investigate how intramuscular application of BoNT-A influences cortical reorganization. Based on such data, BoNT-A becomes gradually accepted as a promising tool to correct the maladaptive plastic changes within the sensorimotor cortex. In summary, electrophysiology and especially neuroimaging studies with BoNT-A further our understanding of pathophysiology underlying dystonic and spastic movement disorders and may consequently help develop novel treatment strategies based on neural plasticity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13020155","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]],"date-time":"2021-02-17T01:47:33Z","timestamp":1613526453000},"page":"155","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":72,"title":["The Central Effects of Botulinum Toxin in Dystonia and Spasticity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1010-384X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pavel","family":"Hok","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University Hospital Olomouc, Palack\u00fd University Olomouc, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6093-8127","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom\u00e1\u0161","family":"Veverka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University Hospital Olomouc, Palack\u00fd University Olomouc, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1951-0671","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petr","family":"Hlu\u0161t\u00edk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University Hospital Olomouc, Palack\u00fd University Olomouc, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7160-5283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Nevrl\u00fd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University Hospital Olomouc, Palack\u00fd University Olomouc, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petr","family":"Ka\u0148ovsk\u00fd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University Hospital Olomouc, Palack\u00fd University Olomouc, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.2000.80.2.717","article-title":"Neurotoxins Affecting Neuroexocytosis","volume":"80","author":"Schiavo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Physiol. 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