{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T11:03:09Z","timestamp":1785495789938,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,23]],"date-time":"2021-06-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624406400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21 AI 145836"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21 AI 145836"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Several classes of non-antibiotic drugs, including psychoactive drugs, proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and others, appear to have strong antimicrobial properties. We considered whether psychoactive drugs induce the SOS response in E. coli bacteria and, consequently, induce Shiga toxins in Shiga-toxigenic E. coli (STEC). We measured the induction of an SOS response using a recA-lacZ\u00a0E. coli reporter strain, as RecA is an early, reliable, and quantifiable marker for activation of the SOS stress response pathway. We also measured the production and release of Shiga toxin 2 (Stx2) from a classic E. coli O157:H7 strain, derived from a food-borne outbreak due to spinach. Some, but not all, serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and antipsychotic drugs induced an SOS response. The use of SSRIs is widespread and increasing; thus, the use of these antidepressants could account for some cases of hemolytic-uremic syndrome due to STEC and is not attributable to antibiotic administration. SSRIs could have detrimental effects on the normal intestinal microbiome in humans. In addition, as SSRIs are resistant to environmental breakdown, they could have effects on microbial communities, including aquatic ecosystems, long after they have left the human body.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13070437","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,23]],"date-time":"2021-06-23T21:14:51Z","timestamp":1624482891000},"page":"437","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Psychoactive Drugs Induce the SOS Response and Shiga Toxin Production in Escherichia coli"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"John K.","family":"Crane","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14221, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mashal","family":"Salehi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14221, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cassandra L.","family":"Alvarado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14221, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-8579(99)00154-5","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of psychotropic drugs: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors","volume":"14","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. 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