{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T03:23:56Z","timestamp":1791429836531,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":129,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,10]],"date-time":"2021-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1628553600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004386","name":"Universiti Malaya","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BKS003-2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BKS003-2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004386","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inadequate effectiveness of Indian antivenoms in treating envenomation caused by the Spectacled Cobra\/Indian Cobra (Naja naja) in Sri Lanka has been attributed to geographical variations in the venom composition. This study investigated the de novo venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics of the Sri Lankan N. naja (NN-SL) to elucidate its toxin gene diversity and venom variability. The neutralization efficacy of a commonly used Indian antivenom product in Sri Lanka was examined against the lethality induced by NN-SL venom in mice. The transcriptomic study revealed high expression of 22 toxin genes families in NN-SL, constituting 46.55% of total transcript abundance. Three-finger toxins (3FTX) were the most diversely and abundantly expressed (87.54% of toxin gene expression), consistent with the dominance of 3FTX in the venom proteome (72.19% of total venom proteins). The 3FTX were predominantly S-type cytotoxins\/cardiotoxins (CTX) and \u03b1-neurotoxins of long-chain or short-chain subtypes (\u03b1-NTX). CTX and \u03b1-NTX are implicated in local tissue necrosis and fatal neuromuscular paralysis, respectively, in envenomation caused by NN-SL. Intra-species variations in the toxin gene sequences and expression levels were apparent between NN-SL and other geographical specimens of N. naja, suggesting potential antigenic diversity that impacts antivenom effectiveness. This was demonstrated by limited potency (0.74 mg venom\/ml antivenom) of the Indian polyvalent antivenom (VPAV) in neutralizing the NN-SL venom. A pan-regional antivenom with improved efficacy to treat N. naja envenomation is needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13080558","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,10]],"date-time":"2021-08-10T22:40:31Z","timestamp":1628635231000},"page":"558","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Elucidating the Venom Diversity in Sri Lankan Spectacled Cobra (Naja naja) through De Novo Venom Gland Transcriptomics, Venom Proteomics and Toxicity Neutralization"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2961-6063","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kin Ying","family":"Wong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6938-7325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kae Yi","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nget Hong","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christeine Ariaranee","family":"Gnanathasan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo 00800, Sri Lanka"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1416-077X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Choo Hock","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2021, June 12). 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