{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:15:00Z","timestamp":1787030100428,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,22]],"date-time":"2021-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634860800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are potent inhibitors of synaptic vesicle fusion and transmitter release. The natural target of BoNTs is the peripheral neuromuscular junction (NMJ) where, by blocking the release of acetylcholine (ACh), they functionally denervate muscles and alter muscle tone. This leads them to be an excellent drug for the therapy of muscle hyperactivity disorders, such as dystonia, spasticity, and many other movement disorders. BoNTs are also effective in inhibiting both the release of ACh at sites other than NMJ and the release of neurotransmitters other than ACh. Furthermore, much evidence shows that BoNTs can act not only on the peripheral nervous system (PNS), but also on the central nervous system (CNS). Under this view, central changes may result either from sensory input from the PNS, from retrograde transport of BoNTs, or from direct injection of BoNTs into the CNS. The aim of this review is to give an update on available data, both from animal models or human studies, which suggest or confirm central alterations induced by peripheral or central BoNTs treatment. The data will be discussed with particular attention to the possible therapeutic applications to pathological conditions and degenerative diseases of the CNS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13110751","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,25]],"date-time":"2021-10-25T21:42:05Z","timestamp":1635198125000},"page":"751","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":57,"title":["Botulinum Neurotoxins in Central Nervous System: An Overview from Animal Models to Human Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1399-2152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siro","family":"Luvisetto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy-CNR, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC), Via Ercole Ramarini 32, Monterotondo Scalo, 00015 Roma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02131","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02131-14","article-title":"On botulinum neurotoxin variability","volume":"6","author":"Montecucco","year":"2015","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tehran, D.A., and Pirazzini, M. 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