{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T04:56:01Z","timestamp":1793854561311,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,10]],"date-time":"2021-11-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636502400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2019YFC0312602"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFC0312602"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41876112"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41876112"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the INTERREG Atlantic Area ALERTOX-NET project","award":["EAPA_317\/2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EAPA_317\/2016"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gymnodimine-A (GYM-A) is a fast-acting microalgal toxin and its production of certified materials requires an efficient harvesting technology from the large-scale cultures of toxigenic microalgae. In this study the recoveries of GYM-A were compared between several liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) treatments including solvents, ratios and stirring times to optimize the LLE technique for harvesting GYM-A from Karenia selliformis cultures, of which the dichloromethane was selected as the extractant and added to microalgal cultures at the ratio 55 mL L\u22121 (5.5%, v\/v). The recovery of GYM-A obtained by the LLE technique was also compared with filtration and centrifugation methods. The stability of GYM-A in culture media were also tested under different pH conditions. Results showed that both the conventional filter filtration and centrifugation methods led to fragmentation of microalgal cells and loss of GYM-A in the harvesting processes. A total of 5.1 \u00b5g of GYM-A were obtained from 2 L of K. selliformis cultures with a satisfactory recovery of 88%. Interestingly, GYM-A obviously degraded in the culture media with the initial pH 8.2 and the adjusted pH of 7.0 after 7 days, but there was no obvious degradation in the acidic medium at pH 5.0. Therefore, the LLE method developed here permits the collection of large-volume cultures of K. selliformis and the high-efficiency extraction of GYM-A. This work provides a simple and valuable technique for harvesting toxins from large-scale cultures of GYM-producing microalgae.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13110793","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,11]],"date-time":"2021-11-11T23:07:21Z","timestamp":1636672041000},"page":"793","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Development of an Efficient Extraction Method for Harvesting Gymnodimine-A from Large-Scale Cultures of Karenia selliformis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Zhixuan","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0973-1809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiangbing","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guixiang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9047-1345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philipp","family":"Hess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ifremer, DYNECO, Phycotoxins Laboratory, F-44000 Nantes, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4487-1249","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aifeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7093","DOI":"10.1016\/0040-4039(95)01434-J","article-title":"Gymnodimine, a new marine toxin of unprecedented structure isolated from New Zealand oysters and the dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium sp.","volume":"36","author":"Seki","year":"1995","journal-title":"Tetrahedron Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2008.05677.x","article-title":"The marine phycotoxin gymnodimine targets muscular and neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes with high affinity","volume":"107","author":"Kharrat","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. 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