{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T13:10:51Z","timestamp":1779282651037,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]],"date-time":"2022-07-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656892800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 110-2314-B-182A-012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 110-2314-B-182A-012"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 109-2320-B-182-009-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 109-2320-B-182-009-MY3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CMRPG3L0651"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG3L0651"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CMRPG3M0241"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG3M0241"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CMRPG3L1231"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG3L1231"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taiwan","award":["MOST 110-2314-B-182A-012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 110-2314-B-182A-012"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taiwan","award":["MOST 109-2320-B-182-009-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 109-2320-B-182-009-MY3"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taiwan","award":["CMRPG3L0651"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG3L0651"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taiwan","award":["CMRPG3M0241"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG3M0241"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taiwan","award":["CMRPG3L1231"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG3L1231"]}]},{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University","award":["MOST 110-2314-B-182A-012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 110-2314-B-182A-012"]}]},{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University","award":["MOST 109-2320-B-182-009-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 109-2320-B-182-009-MY3"]}]},{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University","award":["CMRPG3L0651"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG3L0651"]}]},{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University","award":["CMRPG3M0241"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG3M0241"]}]},{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University","award":["CMRPG3L1231"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPG3L1231"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Taiwanese cobra, Naja atra, is a clinically significant species of snake observed in the wild in Taiwan. Victims bitten by N. atra usually experience severe pain and local tissue necrosis. Although antivenom is available for treatment of cobra envenomation, its neutralization potency against cobra-induced necrosis is weak, with more than 60% of cobra envenoming patients developing tissue necrosis after antivenom administration. The present study found that cytotoxin (CTX) is a key component of N. atra venom responsible for cytotoxicity against myoblast cells. Anti-CTX IgY was generated in hens, and the spleens of these hens were used to construct libraries for the development of single chain variable fragments (scFv). Two anti-CTX scFv, S1 and 2S7, were selected using phage display technology and biopanning. Both polyclonal IgY and monoclonal scFv S1 reacted specifically with CTX in cobra venom. In a cell model assay, the CTX-induced cytolytic effect was inhibited only by monoclonal scFv S1, not by polyclonal IgY. Moreover, the neutralization potency of scFv S1 was about 3.8 mg\/mg, approximately three times higher than that of conventional freeze-dried neurotoxic antivenom (FNAV). Collectively, these results suggest that scFv S1 can effectively neutralize CTX-induced cytotoxicity and, when combined with currently available antivenom, can improve the potency of the latter, thereby preventing tissue damage induced by cobra envenoming.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14070459","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]],"date-time":"2022-07-04T23:38:55Z","timestamp":1656977935000},"page":"459","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Development of a Monoclonal scFv against Cytotoxin to Neutralize Cytolytic Activity Induced by Naja atra Venom on Myoblast C2C12 Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2324-7976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chien-Chun","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cho-Ju","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tsai-Ying","family":"Chou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Geng-Wang","family":"Liaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, Yeezen General Hospital, Taoyuan 32645, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0046-3016","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yung-Chin","family":"Hsiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"},{"name":"Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"},{"name":"Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8488-9614","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lichieh-Julie","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"},{"name":"Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"},{"name":"Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chi-Hsin","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11042, Taiwan"},{"name":"Ph.D. Program in Medical Biotechnology, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11042, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Po-Jung","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cheng-Hsien","family":"Hsieh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, En Chu Kong Hospital, New Taipei City 23741, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chun-Kuei","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4295-983X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jau-Song","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"},{"name":"Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan"},{"name":"Research Center for Food and Cosmetic Safety, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"515","article-title":"Snake-bites appraisal of the global situation","volume":"76","author":"Chippaux","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kasturiratne, A., Wickremasinghe, A.R., de Silva, N., Gunawardena, N.K., Pathmeswaran, A., Premaratna, R., Savioli, L., Lalloo, D.G., and de Silva, H.J. (2008). The global burden of snakebite: A literature analysis and modelling based on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths. PLoS Med., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0050218"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"42","article-title":"Snakebite envenomation and death in the developing world","volume":"19","author":"Cruz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ethn. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17063","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.63","article-title":"Snakebite envenoming","volume":"3","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2009.11.020","article-title":"Snakebite envenoming from a global perspective: Towards an integrated approach","volume":"56","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/S0377-1237(02)80140-X","article-title":"Clinical Features And Management Of Snake Bite","volume":"58","author":"Mehta","year":"2002","journal-title":"Med. J. Armed Forces India"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000181","DOI":"10.4172\/2161-0495.1000181","article-title":"Snake Venom Cytotoxins, Phospholipase A2s, and Zn2+-dependent Metalloproteinases Mechanisms of Action and Pharmacological Relevance","volume":"4","author":"Gasanov","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gutierrez, J.M., Theakston, R.D., and Warrell, D.A. (2006). Confronting the neglected problem of snake bite envenoming: The need for a global partnership. PLoS Med., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0030150"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"885","article-title":"The management of snake bite","volume":"61","author":"HA","year":"1983","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2017.1366502","article-title":"Naja atra snakebite in Taiwan","volume":"56","author":"Mao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(03)00013-0","article-title":"Taiwan\u2019s venomous snakebite: Epidemiological, evolution and geographic differences","volume":"98","author":"Hung","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanz, L., Quesada-Bernat, S., Chen, P.Y., Lee, C.D., Chiang, J.R., and Calvete, J.J. (2018). Translational Venomics: Third-Generation Antivenomics of Anti-Siamese Russell\u2019s Viper, Daboia siamensis, Antivenom Manufactured in Taiwan CDC\u2019s Vaccine Center. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed3020066"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfma.2015.07.006","article-title":"An investigation of snakebite antivenom usage in Taiwan","volume":"115","author":"Lin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Formos. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2012.05.013","article-title":"Improved method for the isolation, characterization and examination of neuromuscular and toxic properties of selected polypeptide fractions from the crude venom of the Taiwan cobra Naja naja atra","volume":"60","author":"Standker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.15-0667","article-title":"Bacteriology of Naja atra Snakebite Wound and Its Implications for Antibiotic Therapy","volume":"94","author":"Mao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C.C., Chou, Y.S., Chen, C.Y., Liu, K.L., Huang, G.J., Yu, J.S., Wu, C.J., Liaw, G.W., Hsieh, C.H., and Chen, C.K. (2020). Pathogenesis of local necrosis induced by Naja atra venom: Assessment of the neutralization ability of Taiwanese freeze-dried neurotoxic antivenom in animal models. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008054"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxcx.2022.100123","article-title":"The myth of cobra venom cytotoxin: More than just direct cytolytic actions","volume":"14","author":"Hiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxicon X"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar.46.3.258","article-title":"Monoclonal versus polyclonal antibodies: Distinguishing characteristics, applications, and information resources","volume":"46","author":"Lipman","year":"2005","journal-title":"ILAR J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1837","article-title":"Potent antibody therapeutics by design","volume":"6","author":"Carter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd2241","article-title":"Development trends for monoclonal antibody cancer therapeutics","volume":"6","author":"Reichert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2008.12.007","article-title":"Human monoclonal ScFv neutralize lethal Thai cobra, Naja kaouthia, neurotoxin","volume":"72","author":"Kulkeaw","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.2217\/imt.11.4","article-title":"Hybridoma technologies for antibody production","volume":"3","author":"Tomita","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunotherapy"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2013.521","article-title":"Antibody phage display: Technique and applications","volume":"134","author":"Hammers","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1080\/19420862.2016.1212149","article-title":"Phage display-derived human antibodies in clinical development and therapy","volume":"8","author":"Frenzel","year":"2016","journal-title":"MAbs"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2018.03.004","article-title":"Pros and cons of different therapeutic antibody formats for recombinant antivenom development","volume":"146","author":"Laustsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690964","DOI":"10.3389\/ftox.2021.690964","article-title":"Reports of Doses Administered and Adverse Reactions to Snake Antivenom Used in Uruguay in 2018","volume":"3","author":"Negrin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.12739","article-title":"Adverse reactions to snake antivenom, and their prevention and treatment","volume":"81","author":"Ryan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.4038\/cmj.v56i3.3594","article-title":"Dealing with adverse reactions to snake antivenom","volume":"56","author":"Gawarammana","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ceylon Med. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2006.11.026","article-title":"Antivenom use, premedication and early adverse reactions in the management of snake bites in rural Papua New Guinea","volume":"49","author":"Williams","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11175","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-47557-y","article-title":"Inhibition of snake venom induced sterile inflammation and PLA2 activity by Titanium dioxide Nanoparticles in experimental animals","volume":"9","author":"Chakrabartty","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6094","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19981-6","article-title":"A therapeutic combination of two small molecule toxin inhibitors provides broad preclinical efficacy against viper snakebite","volume":"11","author":"Albulescu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2020.107172","article-title":"Chicken Egg Yolk Antibodies (IgYs) block the binding of multiple SARS-CoV-2 spike protein variants to human ACE2","volume":"90","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20200056","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-9199-jvatitd-2020-0056","article-title":"Chicken antibodies against venom proteins of Trimeresurus stejnegeri in Taiwan","volume":"26","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Venom. Anim. Toxins Incl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6973","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01876-16","article-title":"Production and Characterization of Neutralizing Antibodies against Bungarus multicinctus Snake Venom","volume":"82","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3928","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-06086-4","article-title":"In vivo neutralization of dendrotoxin-mediated neurotoxicity of black mamba venom by oligoclonal human IgG antibodies","volume":"9","author":"Laustsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.2.1.339","article-title":"Antibody engineering","volume":"2","author":"Maynard","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1423-0410.2000.7820072.x","article-title":"Introduction to antibody engineering and phage display","volume":"78","author":"Watkins","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vox Sang."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1759(00)00221-0","article-title":"Methods for the generation of chicken monoclonal antibody fragments by phage display","volume":"242","author":"Rader","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2015.11.013","article-title":"Understanding and confronting snakebite envenoming: The harvest of cooperation","volume":"109","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gutierrez, J.M., Solano, G., Pla, D., Herrera, M., Segura, A., Vargas, M., Villalta, M., Sanchez, A., Sanz, L., and Lomonte, B. (2017). Preclinical Evaluation of the Efficacy of Antivenoms for Snakebite Envenoming: State-of-the-Art and Challenges Ahead. Toxins, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins9050163"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2016.12.018","article-title":"Proteomic analysis to unravel the complex venom proteome of eastern India Naja naja: Correlation of venom composition with its biochemical and pharmacological properties","volume":"156","author":"Dutta","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2021.03.014","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of three medically important Nigerian Naja (Naja haje, Naja katiensis and Naja nigricollis) snake venoms","volume":"197","author":"Adamude","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1080\/14789450.2018.1538799","article-title":"Proteomics analysis to compare the venom composition between Naja naja and Naja kaouthia from the same geographical location of eastern India: Correlation with pathophysiology of envenomation and immunological cross-reactivity towards commercial polyantivenom","volume":"15","author":"Chanda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2015.03.001","article-title":"Snake venomics of monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia) and investigation of human IgG response against venom toxins","volume":"99","author":"Laustsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2016.08.024","article-title":"Exploring the venom of the forest cobra snake: Toxicovenomics and antivenom profiling of Naja melanoleuca","volume":"150","author":"Lauridsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1266","DOI":"10.1021\/pr101040f","article-title":"Snake venomics of African spitting cobras: Toxin composition and assessment of congeneric cross-reactivity of the pan-African EchiTAb-Plus-ICP antivenom by antivenomics and neutralization approaches","volume":"10","author":"Petras","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2004.09.014","article-title":"Pan-African polyspecific antivenom produced by caprylic acid purification of horse IgG: An alternative to the antivenom crisis in Africa","volume":"99","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2016.06.006","article-title":"Pathogenesis of dermonecrosis induced by venom of the spitting cobra, Naja nigricollis: An experimental study in mice","volume":"119","author":"Rivel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1759(93)90179-B","article-title":"Comparison of four purification methods for the production of immunoglobulins from eggs laid by hens immunized with an enterotoxigenic E. coli strain","volume":"160","author":"Akita","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, C.H., Leu, S.J., Lee, Y.C., Liu, C.I., Lin, L.T., Mwale, P.F., Chiang, J.R., Tsai, B.Y., Chen, C.C., and Hung, C.S. (2018). Characterization of Chicken-Derived Single Chain Antibody Fragments against Venom of Naja Naja Atra. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10100383"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02608-15","article-title":"Antibodies against Venom of the Snake Deinagkistrodon acutus","volume":"82","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/14\/7\/459\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:42:36Z","timestamp":1760139756000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/14\/7\/459"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins14070459"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins14070459","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]]}}}