{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T02:04:04Z","timestamp":1773021844937,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,13]],"date-time":"2022-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657670400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CSIR-CCMB","award":["EMR\/2017\/005515"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EMR\/2017\/005515"]}]},{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, India","award":["EMR\/2017\/005515"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EMR\/2017\/005515"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001409","name":"SERB-Department of Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EMR\/2017\/005515"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EMR\/2017\/005515"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001409","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In India, polyvalent antivenom is the mainstay treatment for snakebite envenoming. Due to batch-to-batch variation in antivenom production, manufacturers have to estimate its efficacy at each stage of IgG purification using the median effective dose which involves 100\u2013120 mice for each batch. There is an urgent need to replace the excessive use of animals in snake antivenom production using in vitro alternatives. We tested the efficacy of a single batch of polyvalent antivenom from VINS bioproducts limited on Echis carinatus venom collected from three different locations\u2014Tamil Nadu (ECVTN), Goa (ECVGO) and Rajasthan (ECVRAJ)\u2014using different in vitro assays. Firstly, size-exclusion chromatography (SEC-HPLC) was used to quantify antivenom\u2013venom complexes to assess the binding efficiency of the antivenom. Secondly, clotting, proteolytic and PLA2 activity assays were performed to quantify the ability of the antivenom to neutralize venom effects. The use of both binding and functional assays allowed us to measure the efficacy of the antivenom, as they represent multiple impacts of snake envenomation. The response from the assays was recorded for different antivenom\u2013venom ratios and the dose\u2013response curves were plotted. Based on the parameters that explained the curves, the efficacy scores (ES) of antivenom were computed. The binding assay revealed that ECVTN had more antivenom\u2013venom complexes formed compared to the other venoms. The capacity of antivenom to neutralize proteolytic and PLA2 effects was lowest against ECVRAJ. The mean efficacy score of antivenom against ECVTN was the greatest, which was expected, as ECVTN is mainly used by antivenom manufacturers. These findings pave a way for the development of in vitro alternatives in antivenom efficacy assessment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14070481","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,14]],"date-time":"2022-07-14T00:12:40Z","timestamp":1657757560000},"page":"481","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Evaluating Antivenom Efficacy against Echis carinatus Venoms\u2014Screening for In Vitro Alternatives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6794-0257","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siddharth","family":"Bhatia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, Hyderabad 500048, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5101-1100","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Avni","family":"Blotra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, Hyderabad 500048, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2316-3382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karthikeyan","family":"Vasudevan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, Hyderabad 500048, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617429","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.617429","article-title":"In Vitro Tests for Assessing the Neutralizing Ability of Snake Antivenoms: Toward the 3Rs Principles","volume":"11","author":"Vargas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. 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