{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T02:27:18Z","timestamp":1790216838150,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]],"date-time":"2022-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659312000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Queensland International PhD scholarship fund","award":["DP190100304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DP190100304"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council Discovery Project","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DP190100304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DP190100304"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Snake venom is an adaptive ecological trait that has evolved primarily as a form of prey subjugation. Thus, the selection pressure for toxin diversification is exerted by the prey\u2019s physiological targets, with this pressure being particularly acute for specialist feeders, such as the King Cobra species, all of which are snake-prey specialists. However, while extensive research has been undertaken to elucidate key amino acids that guide toxin structure\u2013activity relationships, reciprocal investigations into the specific sites guiding prey-lineage selective effects have been lacking. This has largely been due to the lack of assay systems amenable to systematic amino acid replacements of targeted proteins in the prey\u2019s physiological pathways. To fill this knowledge gap, we used a recently described approach based upon mimotope peptides corresponding to the orthosteric site of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha-1 subunits, a major binding site for snake venom neurotoxins that cause flaccid paralysis. We investigated the venoms of four different types of King Cobra (Cambodian, Javan, Malaysian, and Thai). This approach allowed for the determination of the key amino acid positions in King Cobra snake prey that are selectively bound by the toxins, whereby replacing these amino acids in the snake-prey orthosteric site with those from lizards or rats resulted in a significantly lower level of binding by the venoms, while conversely replacing the lizard or rat amino acids with those from the snake at that position increased the binding. By doing such, we identified three negatively charged amino acids in the snake orthosteric site that are strongly bound by the positively charged neurotoxic three-finger toxins found in King Cobra venom. This study, thus, sheds light on the selection pressures exerted by a specialist prey item for the evolution of lineage-selective toxins.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14080528","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]],"date-time":"2022-08-01T23:49:27Z","timestamp":1659397767000},"page":"528","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["The Target Selects the Toxin: Specific Amino Acids in Snake-Prey Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors That Are Selectively Bound by King Cobra Venoms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7756-2699","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Uthpala","family":"Chandrasekara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Venom Evolution Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4412-2275","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard J.","family":"Harris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Venom Evolution Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6661-1283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bryan G.","family":"Fry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Venom Evolution Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"20202703","article-title":"Electrostatic resistance to alpha-neurotoxins conferred by charge reversal mutations in nicotinic acetylcholine receptors","volume":"288","author":"Harris","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. 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