{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T15:54:31Z","timestamp":1792079671020,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,13]],"date-time":"2022-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665619200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, numerous studies have highlighted the significant use of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) in the human therapy of various motor and autonomic disorders. The therapeutic action is exerted with the selective cleavage of specific sites of the SNARE\u2019s protein complex, which plays a key role in the vesicular neuroexocytosis which is responsible for neural transmission. The primary target of the BoNTs\u2019 action is the peripheral neuromuscular junction (NMJ), where, by blocking cholinergic neurons releasing acetylcholine (ACh), they interfere with neural transmission. A great deal of experimental evidence has demonstrated that BoNTs are also effective in blocking the release of other neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, such as glutamate, substance-P, and CGRP, and they can interfere with the function of glial cells, both at the peripheral and central level. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on the available experimental data from animal models that suggest or confirm the direct interactions between BoNTs and glial cells. From the data collected, it appears evident that, through mechanisms that are not yet fully understood, BoNTs can block the activation of spinal glial cells and their subsequent release of pro-inflammatory factors. BoNTs are also able to promote peripheral regeneration processes after nerve injury by stimulating the proliferation of Schwann cells. The data will be discussed in consideration of the possible therapeutic implications of the use of BoNTs on those pathological conditions where the contribution of glial cell activation is fundamental, such as in peripheral and central neuropathies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14100704","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,14]],"date-time":"2022-10-14T01:44:13Z","timestamp":1665711853000},"page":"704","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Botulinum Neurotoxins beyond Neurons: Interplay with Glial Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1399-2152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siro","family":"Luvisetto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Research Council of Italy, Via Ercole Ramarini 32, Monterotondo Scalo, 00015 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02131","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02131-14","article-title":"On botulinum neurotoxin variability","volume":"6","author":"Montecucco","year":"2015","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3295","article-title":"Botulinum neurotoxins: Genetic, structural and mechanistic insights","volume":"12","author":"Rossetto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. 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