{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T05:55:36Z","timestamp":1793858136104,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":140,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,1]],"date-time":"2022-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669852800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cytotoxins (CTXs), an essential class of the non-enzymatic three-finger toxin family, are ubiquitously present in cobra venoms. These low-molecular-mass toxins, contributing to about 40 to 60% of the cobra venom proteome, play a significant role in cobra venom-induced toxicity, more prominently in dermonecrosis. Structurally, CTXs contain the conserved three-finger hydrophobic loops; however, they also exhibit a certain degree of structural diversity that dictates their biological activities. In their mechanism, CTXs mediate toxicity by affecting cell membrane structures and membrane-bound proteins and activating apoptotic and necrotic cell death pathways. Notably, some CTXs are also responsible for depolarizing neurons and heart muscle membranes, thereby contributing to the cardiac failure frequently observed in cobra-envenomed victims. Consequently, they are also known as cardiotoxins (CdTx). Studies have shown that cobra venom CTXs form cognate complexes with other components that potentiate the toxic effects of the venom\u2019s individual component. This review focuses on the pharmacological mechanism of cobra venom CTXs and their complexes, highlighting their significance in cobra venom-induced pathophysiology and toxicity. Furthermore, the potency of commercial antivenoms in reversing the adverse effects of cobra venom CTXs and their complexes in envenomed victims has also been discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14120839","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,1]],"date-time":"2022-12-01T03:03:41Z","timestamp":1669863821000},"page":"839","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Current Insights in the Mechanisms of Cobra Venom Cytotoxins and Their Complexes in Inducing Toxicity: Implications in Antivenom Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1878-219X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bhargab","family":"Kalita","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Amrita School of Nanosciences and Molecular Medicine, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kochi 682041, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4609-970X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuri N.","family":"Utkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117997, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashis K.","family":"Mukherjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Guwahati 781035, India"},{"name":"Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17079","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.79","article-title":"Snakebite envenoming","volume":"3","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. 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