{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,30]],"date-time":"2026-08-30T05:16:40Z","timestamp":1788067000799,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]],"date-time":"2023-03-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation","award":["98323"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["98323"]}]},{"name":"University of KwaZulu-Natal College of Health Science","award":["98323"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["98323"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) have risen rapidly worldwide, sparking interest in causative agents and pathways. Patulin (PAT), a xenobiotic found in fruit products contaminated by molds, is postulated to be diabetogenic in animals, but little is known about these effects in humans. This study examined the effects of PAT on the insulin signaling pathway and the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH). HEK293 and HepG2 cells were exposed to normal (5 mM) or high (25 mM) glucose levels, insulin (1.7 nM) and PAT (0.2 \u03bcM; 2.0 \u03bcM) for 24 h. The qPCR determined gene expression of key enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism while Western blotting assessed the effects of PAT on the insulin signaling pathway and Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) axis. Under hyperglycemic conditions, PAT stimulated glucose production pathways, caused defects in the insulin signaling pathway and impaired PDH activity. These trends under hyperglycemic conditions remained consistent in the presence of insulin. These findings are of importance, given that PAT is ingested with fruit and fruit products. Results suggest PAT exposure may be an initiating event in insulin resistance, alluding to an etiological role in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes and disorders of metabolism. This highlights the importance of both diet and food quality in addressing the causes of NCDs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15040244","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]],"date-time":"2023-03-27T03:31:48Z","timestamp":1679887908000},"page":"244","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Patulin Alters Insulin Signaling and Metabolic Flexibility in HepG2 and HEK293 Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Yashodani","family":"Pillay","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Medical Biochemistry and Chemical Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, George Campbell Building, Howard College, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Savania","family":"Nagiah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Medical Biochemistry and Chemical Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, George Campbell Building, Howard College, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4649-4133","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anil","family":"Chuturgoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Medical Biochemistry and Chemical Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, George Campbell Building, Howard College, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-014-0081-9","article-title":"Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) in developing countries: A symposium report","volume":"10","author":"Islam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. 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