{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T15:29:08Z","timestamp":1789140548144,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]],"date-time":"2023-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"UK Ministry of Defence"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The pathogenesis of ricin toxicity following inhalation has been investigated in many animal models, including the non-human primate (predominantly the rhesus macaque), pig, rabbit and rodent. The toxicity and associated pathology described in animal models are broadly similar, but variation appears to exist. This paper reviews the published literature and some of our own unpublished data and describes some of the possible reasons for this variation. Methodological variation is evident, including method of exposure, breathing parameters during exposure, aerosol characteristics, sampling protocols, ricin cultivar, purity and challenge dose and study duration. The model species and strain used represent other significant sources of variation, including differences in macro- and microscopic anatomy, cell biology and function, and immunology. Chronic pathology of ricin toxicity by inhalation, associated with sublethal challenge or lethal challenge and treatment with medical countermeasures, has received less attention in the literature. Fibrosis may follow acute lung injury in survivors. There are advantages and disadvantages to the different models of pulmonary fibrosis. To understand their potential clinical significance, these factors need to be considered when choosing a model for chronic ricin toxicity by inhalation, including species and strain susceptibility to fibrosis, time it takes for fibrosis to develop, the nature of the fibrosis (e.g., self-limiting, progressive, persistent or resolving) and ensuring that the analysis truly represents fibrosis. Understanding the variables and comparative aspects of acute and chronic ricin toxicity by inhalation is important to enable meaningful comparison of results from different studies, and for the investigation of medical countermeasures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15040281","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,14]],"date-time":"2023-04-14T01:32:03Z","timestamp":1681435923000},"page":"281","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Comparative Aspects of Ricin Toxicity by Inhalation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"Stoll","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel P.","family":"Shenton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A. Christopher","family":"Green","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jane L.","family":"Holley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1080\/08958370701432124","article-title":"Inhalation toxicology of ricin preparations: Animal models, prophylactic and therapeutic approaches to protection","volume":"19","author":"Griffiths","year":"2007","journal-title":"Inhal. 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