{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T03:11:15Z","timestamp":1792033875817,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,25]],"date-time":"2023-06-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687651200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Cancer Institute\/National Institutes of Health (NCI\/NIH)","award":["01CA194730"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01CA194730"]}]},{"name":"National Cancer Institute\/National Institutes of Health (NCI\/NIH)","award":["U54MD012392"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U54MD012392"]}]},{"name":"National Cancer Institute\/National Institutes of Health (NCI\/NIH)","award":["R01MD012767"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01MD012767"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities\/National Institutes of Health (NIMHD\/NIH)","award":["01CA194730"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01CA194730"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities\/National Institutes of Health (NIMHD\/NIH)","award":["U54MD012392"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U54MD012392"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities\/National Institutes of Health (NIMHD\/NIH)","award":["R01MD012767"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01MD012767"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Freshwater prokaryotic cyanobacteria within harmful algal blooms produce cyanotoxins which are considered major pollutants in the aquatic system. Direct exposure to cyanotoxins through inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion of contaminated drinking water can target the liver and may cause hepatotoxicity. In the current study, we investigated the effect of low concentrations of cyanotoxins on cytotoxicity, inflammation, modulation of unfolded protein response (UPR), steatosis, and fibrosis signaling in human hepatocytes and liver cell models. Exposure to low concentrations of microcystin-LR (MC-LR), microcystin-RR (MC-RR), nodularin (NOD), and cylindrospermopsin (CYN) in human bipotent progenitor cell line HepaRG and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines HepG2 and SK-Hep1 resulted in increased cell toxicity. MC-LR, NOD, and CYN differentially regulated inflammatory signaling, activated UPR signaling and lipogenic gene expression, and induced cellular steatosis and fibrotic signaling in HCC cells. MC-LR, NOD, and CYN also regulated AKT\/mTOR signaling and inhibited autophagy. Chronic exposure to MC-LR, NOD, and CYN upregulated the expression of lipogenic and fibrosis biomarkers. Moreover, RNA sequencing (RNA seq) data suggested that exposure of human hepatocytes, HepaRG, and HCC HepG2 cells to MC-LR and CYN modulated expression levels of several genes that regulate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Our data suggest that low concentrations of cyanotoxins can cause hepatotoxicity and cell steatosis and promote NAFLD progression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15070411","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,26]],"date-time":"2023-06-26T03:14:56Z","timestamp":1687749296000},"page":"411","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Cyanotoxins Increase Cytotoxicity and Promote Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Progression by Enhancing Cell Steatosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0613-9399","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suryakant","family":"Niture","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sashi","family":"Gadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qi","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4849-3399","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leslimar","family":"Rios-Colon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Julius L. 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Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Reshan A.","family":"Fernando","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NCCU-RTI Center for Applied Research in Environmental Sciences (CARES), RTI International, Durham, NC 27707, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keith E.","family":"Levine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NCCU-RTI Center for Applied Research in Environmental Sciences (CARES), RTI International, Durham, NC 27707, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0418-5116","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Deepak","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Julius L. Chambers Biomedical Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"27","article-title":"Climate change: A catalyst for global expansion of harmful cyanobacterial blooms","volume":"1","author":"Paerl","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. 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