{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T10:54:27Z","timestamp":1788173667818,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,23]],"date-time":"2023-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1703289600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Botulinum toxin (BoNT) is an effective and safe therapy for the symptomatic treatment of several neurological disturbances. An important line of research has provided numerous pieces of evidence about the mechanisms of action of BoNT in the central nervous system, especially in the context of dystonia and spasticity. However, only a few studies focused on the possible central effects of BoNT in Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD). We performed a systematic review to describe and discuss the evidence from studies focused on possible central effects of BoNT in PD animal models and PD patients. To this aim, a literature search in PubMed and SCOPUS was performed in May 2023. The records were screened according to title and abstract by two independent reviewers and relevant articles were selected for full-text review. Most of the papers highlighted by our review report that the intrastriatal administration of BoNT, through local anticholinergic action and the remodulation of striatal compensatory mechanisms secondary to dopaminergic denervation, induces an improvement in motor and non-motor symptoms in the absence of neuronal loss in animal models of PD. In human subjects, the data are scarce: a single neurophysiological study in tremulous PD patients found that the change in tremor severity after peripheral BoNT administration was associated with improved sensory\u2013motor integration and intracortical inhibition measures. Further clinical, neurophysiological, and neuroimaging studies are necessary to clarify the possible central effects of BoNT in PD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins16010009","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,24]],"date-time":"2023-12-24T20:49:27Z","timestamp":1703450967000},"page":"9","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Exploring the Central Mechanisms of Botulinum Toxin in Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Systematic Review from Animal Models to Human Evidence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Carolina","family":"Cutrona","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 30, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Marchet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 30, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matteo","family":"Costanzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanit\u00e0, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8747-9805","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Ilenia","family":"De Bartolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 30, 00185 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"IRCSS Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6631-6740","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giorgio","family":"Leodori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 30, 00185 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"IRCSS Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gina","family":"Ferrazzano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 30, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6338-2961","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonella","family":"Conte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 30, 00185 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"IRCSS Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Fabbrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 30, 00185 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"IRCSS Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alfredo","family":"Berardelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 30, 00185 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"IRCSS Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniele","family":"Belvisi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 30, 00185 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"IRCSS Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choudhury, S., Baker, M.R., Chatterjee, S., and Kumar, H. 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