{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T01:31:48Z","timestamp":1793323908588,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]],"date-time":"2024-05-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716508800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health","award":["R01A115845"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01A115845"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health","award":["I01BX004630"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I01BX004630"]}]},{"name":"Veterans Affairs MERIT Review","award":["R01A115845"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01A115845"]}]},{"name":"Veterans Affairs MERIT Review","award":["I01BX004630"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I01BX004630"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Clostridioides difficile, a Gram-positive anaerobic bacterium, is the leading cause of hospital-acquired antibiotic-associated diarrhea worldwide. The severity of C. difficile infection (CDI) varies, ranging from mild diarrhea to life-threatening conditions such as pseudomembranous colitis and toxic megacolon. Central to the pathogenesis of the infection are toxins produced by C. difficile, with toxin A (TcdA) and toxin B (TcdB) as the main virulence factors. Additionally, some strains produce a third toxin known as C. difficile transferase (CDT). Toxins damage the colonic epithelium, initiating a cascade of cellular events that lead to inflammation, fluid secretion, and further tissue damage within the colon. Mechanistically, the toxins bind to cell surface receptors, internalize, and then inactivate GTPase proteins, disrupting the organization of the cytoskeleton and affecting various Rho-dependent cellular processes. This results in a loss of epithelial barrier functions and the induction of cell death. The third toxin, CDT, however, functions as a binary actin-ADP-ribosylating toxin, causing actin depolymerization and inducing the formation of microtubule-based protrusions. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the interaction between C. difficile toxins and host cells, elucidating the functional consequences of their actions. Furthermore, we will outline how this knowledge forms the basis for developing innovative, toxin-based strategies for treating and preventing CDI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins16060241","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]],"date-time":"2024-05-24T06:59:04Z","timestamp":1716533944000},"page":"241","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Clostridioides difficile Toxins: Host Cell Interactions and Their Role in Disease Pathogenesis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Md Zahidul","family":"Alam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, 600 Moye Boulevard, Greenville, NC 27858, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9821-1257","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rajat","family":"Madan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA"},{"name":"Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45220, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1408913","article-title":"Burden of Clostridium difficile Infection in the United States","volume":"372","author":"Lessa","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. 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