{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T09:58:22Z","timestamp":1782467902117,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,14]],"date-time":"2024-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726272000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council Discovery Project","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DP190100304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DP190100304"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Eastern Long-Nosed Viper (Vipera ammodytes meridionalis) is considered one of the most venomous snakes in Europe. However, it is unknown whether ontogenetic variation in venom effects occurs in this subspecies and how this may impact antivenom efficacy. In this study, we compared the procoagulant activities of V. a. meridionalis venom on human plasma between neonate and adult venom phenotypes. We also examined the efficacy of three antivenoms\u2014Viperfav, ViperaTAb, and Inoserp Europe\u2014across our neonate and adult venom samples. While both neonate and adult V. a. meridionalis venoms produced procoagulant effects, the effects produced by neonate venom were more potent. Consistent with this, neonate venom was a stronger activator of blood-clotting zymogens, converting them into their active forms, with a rank order of Factor X &gt;&gt; Factor VII &gt; Factor XII. Conversely, the less potent adult venom had a rank order of FXII marginally more activated than Factor VII, and both much more so than Factor X. This adds to the growing body of evidence that activation of factors besides FII (prothrombin) and FX are significant variables in reptile venom-induced coagulopathy. Although all three examined antivenoms displayed effective neutralization of both neonate and adult V. a. meridionalis venoms, they generally showed higher efficacy on adult venom than on neonate venom. The ranking of antivenom efficacy against neonate venom, from the most effective to the least effective, were Viperfav, Inoserp Europe, ViperaTAb; for adult venom, the ranking was Inoserp Europe, Viperfav, ViperaTAb. Our data reveal ontogenetic variation in V. a meridionalis, but this difference may not be of clinical concern as antivenom was effective at neutralizing both adult and neonate venom phenotypes. Regardless, our results highlight a previously undocumented ontogenetic shift, likely driven by the documented difference in prey preference observed for this species across age classes<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins16090396","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,16]],"date-time":"2024-09-16T10:56:57Z","timestamp":1726484217000},"page":"396","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Tiny but Mighty: Vipera ammodytes meridionalis (Eastern Long-Nosed Viper) Ontogenetic Venom Variations in Procoagulant Potency and the Impact on Antivenom Efficacies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6390-8935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zichen","family":"Qiao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0324-1195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lee","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9474-3192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lachlan A.","family":"Bourke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0004-6941","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Seneci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abhinandan","family":"Chowdhury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6048-6992","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aude","family":"Violette","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alphabiotoxine Laboratory Sprl, Barberie 15, 7911 Montroeul-au-Bois, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9583-9615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rudy","family":"Fourmy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alphabiotoxine Laboratory Sprl, Barberie 15, 7911 Montroeul-au-Bois, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2627-6972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raul","family":"Soria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Inosan Biopharma, 28108 Alcobendas, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matt","family":"Aldridge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MicroPharm Limited, Newcastle Emlyn SA38 9BY, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6661-1283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bryan G.","family":"Fry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e218","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0050218","article-title":"The global burden of snakebite: A literature analysis and modelling based on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths","volume":"5","author":"Kasturiratne","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fry, B.G. 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