{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:15:41Z","timestamp":1787030141986,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,23]],"date-time":"2025-05-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747958400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Programa de Investigaci\u00f3n a Grupos de Investigaci\u00f3n reconocidos GIR, CEU-UCH 2024\u20132025","award":["GIR 24\/59"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GIR 24\/59"]}]},{"name":"Programa de Investigaci\u00f3n a Grupos de Investigaci\u00f3n reconocidos GIR, CEU-UCH 2024\u20132025","award":["GIR 24\/19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GIR 24\/19"]}]},{"name":"Programa de Investigaci\u00f3n a Grupos de Investigaci\u00f3n reconocidos GIR, CEU-UCH 2024\u20132025","award":["PID2023-149211OB-C33"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-149211OB-C33"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Spanish Government)","award":["GIR 24\/59"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GIR 24\/59"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Spanish Government)","award":["GIR 24\/19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GIR 24\/19"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Spanish Government)","award":["PID2023-149211OB-C33"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-149211OB-C33"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ochratoxin A (OTA), a toxic compound generated by Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi, is a common contaminant in different food and animal feed sources, thereby posing possible dangers to human well-being. Although OTA is widely recognized for its kidney-damaging properties, new findings have also indicated its potential to harm the nervous system. Current research trends have increasingly examined the part played by environmental poisons, such as mycotoxins, in the development of diseases. This systematic review gathers and assesses the features of OTA along with the insights acquired from studies on its neurotoxicity. This work presents recent research that demonstrates some mechanisms by which OTA crosses the intestinal and blood\u2013brain barriers, penetrating neural structures. In addition, it discusses the effect of OTA on several types of neural cells and its roles in apoptosis, neuroinflammation, and neurogenesis defects, while also determining the effects of antioxidant systems that neutralize the effects of OTA. This paper identifies crucial gaps in the research and highlights the necessity for further in-depth studies into how OTA affects the processes underlying neurodegeneration. Filling these knowledge gaps could provide valuable insights into the neurotoxic potential of OTA and its relevance to neurological disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17060264","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,23]],"date-time":"2025-05-23T09:58:09Z","timestamp":1747994289000},"page":"264","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Unveiling the Neurotoxic Effects of Ochratoxin A and Its Impact on Neuroinflammation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6510-0879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda \u00c1ngeles","family":"Garc\u00eda-Esparza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Cardenal Herrera University\u2014CEU Universities, 46001 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7841-9838","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva Mar\u00eda","family":"Mateo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Ecology, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Valencia, 46001 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 Antonio","family":"Robles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cardenal Herrera University\u2014CEU Universities, 46001 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michela","family":"Capoferri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departament of Animal Production and Animal Health, Veterinary Public Health and Food Science and Tecnnology, Cardenal Herrera University\u2014CEU Universities, 46001 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1404-4982","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Misericordia","family":"Jim\u00e9nez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, 46100 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9144-5096","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Miguel","family":"Soria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cardenal Herrera University\u2014CEU Universities, 46001 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2008.05.011","article-title":"Exposure assessment of mycotoxins in dairy milk","volume":"20","author":"Coffey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2013.07.047","article-title":"Mycotoxins: Occurrence, toxicology, and exposure assessment","volume":"60","author":"Marin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-57.6.536","article-title":"Methods for Detection and Quantitation of Fumonisins in Corn, Cereal Products and Animal Excreta","volume":"57","author":"Rice","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, and United Nations Environment Programme (1977). Report of the Joint FAO\/WHO\/UNEP Conference on Mycotoxins Held in Nairobi, 17\u201319 September 1977, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO food and nutrition paper."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.3061","article-title":"Neurotoxic effects of ochratoxin A on the subventricular zone of adult mouse brain","volume":"35","author":"Paradells","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-4520.2006.00117.x","article-title":"Genetic susceptibility in the neural tube defects induced by ochratoxin A in the genetic arhinencephaly mouse, Pdn\/Pdn","volume":"46","author":"Ohta","year":"2006","journal-title":"Congenit. Anom."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5213","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms12085213","article-title":"Mechanisms of mycotoxin-induced neurotoxicity through oxidative stress-associated pathways","volume":"12","author":"Doi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1007\/s002040050594","article-title":"Selective toxicity of ochratoxin A in primary cultures from different brain regions","volume":"73","author":"Belmadani","year":"1999","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1522-7189(199809\/10)6:5<173::AID-NT10>3.0.CO;2-4","article-title":"Differences in neurotoxic effects of ochratoxin A, ochracin and ochratoxin-alpha in vitro","volume":"6","author":"Bruinink","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nat. Toxins"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2020.111676","article-title":"The neurotoxicity of trichothecenes T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON): Current status and future perspectives","volume":"145","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2010.11.006","article-title":"Alteration of blood brain barrier permeability by T-2 toxin: Role of MMP-9 and inflammatory cytokines","volume":"280","author":"Ravindran","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1021\/tx3004664","article-title":"Neurotoxic potential and cellular uptake of T-2 toxin in human astrocytes in primary culture","volume":"26","author":"Weidner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2024, December 03). Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria Mycotoxins: Occurrence, Toxicity and Toxicokinetics. Available online: https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/9\/7\/228.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins9070228"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1017\/S095442241200008X","article-title":"The role of biomarkers in evaluating human health concerns from fungal contaminants in food","volume":"25","author":"Turner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2024, December 03). Mycotoxins: Emerging Toxic Mechanisms, and Unanswered Research Questions\u2014ScienceDirect. Available online: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/abs\/pii\/S0278691523000753?via%3Dihub."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1515\/hsz-2021-0214","article-title":"The role of mycotoxins in neurodegenerative diseases: Current state of the art and future perspectives of research","volume":"403","author":"Nguyen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2449","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-019-02881-7","article-title":"Role of Astrocytes in Manganese Neurotoxicity Revisited","volume":"44","author":"Ke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1007\/s12640-020-00308-8","article-title":"Neurodegenerative Implications of Neuronal Cytoplasmic Protein Dysfunction in Response to Environmental Contaminants","volume":"39","author":"Osemwegie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurotox. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2023.113934","article-title":"Neurotoxicity of furan in juvenile Wistar rats involves behavioral defects, microgliosis, astrogliosis and oxidative stress","volume":"178","author":"Awogbindin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.04.034","article-title":"Ochratoxin A and citrinin producing species of the genus Penicillium from feedstuffs","volume":"126","author":"Bragulat","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1080\/10408390500436185","article-title":"Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination of food and animal feed: A review","volume":"46","author":"Kabak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4830","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.7b00770","article-title":"Broad-Specificity Immunoassay for Simultaneous Detection of Ochratoxins A, B, and C in Millet and Maize","volume":"65","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2020.08.031","article-title":"Ochratoxins in food and feed: Occurrence and its impact on human health and management strategies","volume":"187","author":"Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, L., Han, M., Wang, X., and Guo, Y. (2023). Ochratoxin A: Overview of Prevention, Removal, and Detoxification Methods. Toxins, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15090565"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2018.01.002","article-title":"Ochratoxin A: Toxicity, oxidative stress and metabolism","volume":"112","author":"Tao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3608","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins7093608","article-title":"Ochratoxin A Dietary Exposure of Ten Population Groups in the Czech Republic: Comparison with Data over the World","volume":"7","author":"Ostry","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2025, May 17). EU 2023\/915. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/PDF\/?uri=CELEX:32023R0915."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malir, F., Ostry, V., Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A., Malir, J., and Toman, J. (2016). Ochratoxin A: 50 Years of Research. Toxins, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8070191"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1215","article-title":"La ocratoxina A en alimentos de consumo humano: Revisi\u00f3n","volume":"26","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutr. Hosp."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s002040000157","article-title":"Kinetic parameters and intraindividual fluctuations of ochratoxin A plasma levels in humans","volume":"74","author":"Schlatter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"33","article-title":"High affinity binding of ochratoxin A to plasma constituents","volume":"9","author":"Hult","year":"1984","journal-title":"Biochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2020.09.011","article-title":"An assessment of the occurrence and nutritional factors associated with aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, and zearalenone in the breast milk of nursing mothers in Hamadan, Iran","volume":"187","author":"Samiee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-024-00519-4","article-title":"Determination of aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in breast milk in rural centers of Yazd, Iran: Exposure assessment and risk characterization","volume":"40","author":"Rezaei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-023-00510-5","article-title":"Occurrence of ochratoxin A in breast milk and urine samples of nursing mothers in Bangladesh","volume":"40","author":"Hafsa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2174\/138920011794520026","article-title":"Metabolic Pathways of Ochratoxin A","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Metab."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2003.10.001","article-title":"Metabolism-mediated cytotoxicity of ochratoxin A","volume":"18","author":"Bull","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitro"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327914nc5002_9","article-title":"Structurally Related Mycotoxins Ochratoxin A, Ochratoxin B, and Citrinin Differ in Their Genotoxic Activities and in Their Mode of Action in Human-Derived Liver (HepG2) Cells: Implications for Risk Assessment","volume":"50","author":"Knasmuller","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nutr. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2017.08.023","article-title":"Food contact materials and gut health: Implications for toxicity assessment and relevance of high molecular weight migrants","volume":"109","author":"Groh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2012.10.007","article-title":"Modulation of intestinal barrier by intestinal microbiota: Pathological and therapeutic implications","volume":"69","author":"Natividad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2016.169","article-title":"The intestinal epithelial barrier: A therapeutic target?","volume":"14","author":"Odenwald","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2025, March 26). Crossing the Intestinal Barrier via Listeria Adhesion Protein and Internalin A: Trends in Microbiology. Available online: https:\/\/www.cell.com\/trends\/microbiology\/abstract\/S0966-842X(18)30283-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0966842X1830283X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2012.01.010","article-title":"A mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway induced by deoxynivalenol in human colon cancer cells","volume":"26","author":"Ma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitro"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1006\/scdb.2000.0178","article-title":"MAGUK proteins: Structure and role in the tight junction","volume":"11","author":"Betanzos","year":"2000","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.123.6.1777","article-title":"Occludin: A novel integral membrane protein localizing at tight junctions","volume":"123","author":"Furuse","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Y., Meng, L., Liu, H., Wang, J., and Zheng, N. (2020). The Compromised Intestinal Barrier Induced by Mycotoxins. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12100619"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2472","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/33.11.2472","article-title":"Mechanisms confining indigenous bacteria to the gastrointestinal tract","volume":"33","author":"Berg","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1177\/0148607189013006565","article-title":"Prevention of yeast translocation across the gut by a single enteral feeding after burn injury","volume":"13","author":"Inoue","year":"1989","journal-title":"JPEN J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1566","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(95)90708-4","article-title":"Intestinal permeability: An overview","volume":"108","author":"Bjarnason","year":"1995","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khoi, C.-S., Chen, J.-H., Lin, T.-Y., Chiang, C.-K., and Hung, K.-Y. (2021). Ochratoxin A-Induced Nephrotoxicity: Up-to-Date Evidence. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222011237"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1006\/taap.2001.9254","article-title":"The mycotoxin ochratoxin A alters intestinal barrier and absorption functions but has no effect on chloride secretion","volume":"176","author":"Maresca","year":"2001","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2025, March 26). The Intestinal Barrier as an Emerging Target in the Toxicological Assessment of Mycotoxins|Archives of Toxicology. Available online: https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00204-016-1794-8."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1412","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00007.2004","article-title":"Ochratoxin A increases permeability through tight junctions by removal of specific claudin isoforms","volume":"287","author":"McLaughlin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Y., Li, S., Wang, J., Luo, C., Zhao, S., and Zheng, N. (2017). Modulation of Intestinal Epithelial Permeability in Differentiated Caco-2 Cells Exposed to Aflatoxin M1 and Ochratoxin A Individually or Collectively. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10010013"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2019.03.010","article-title":"Modulation of intestinal epithelial permeability and mucin mRNA (MUC2, MUC5AC, and MUC5B) expression and protein secretion in Caco-2\/HT29-MTX co-cultures exposed to aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, and zearalenone individually or collectively","volume":"309","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.114837","article-title":"Selenomethionine attenuates ochratoxin A-induced small intestinal injury in rabbits by activating the Nrf2 pathway and inhibiting NF-\u03baB activation","volume":"256","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2009.07.030","article-title":"Structure and function of the blood-brain barrier","volume":"37","author":"Abbott","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jcbfm.9600181","article-title":"Brain endothelial hemostasis regulation by pericytes","volume":"26","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2010.05.003","article-title":"Looking at the blood-brain barrier: Molecular anatomy and possible investigation approaches","volume":"64","author":"Cardoso","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2025, March 27). Cholesterol Metabolism in Neurons and Astrocytes\u2014ScienceDirect. Available online: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/abs\/pii\/S0163782711000312?via%3Dihub."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erceg, S., Mateo, E.M., Zipancic, I., Rodr\u00edguez Jim\u00e9nez, F.J., P\u00e9rez Arag\u00f3, M.A., Jim\u00e9nez, M., Soria, J.M., and Garcia-Esparza, M.\u00c1. (2019). Assessment of Toxic Effects of Ochratoxin A in Human Embryonic Stem Cells. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11040217"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mateo, E., Tonino, R.P.B., Canto, A., Monroy Noyola, A., Miranda, M., Soria, J.M., and Garcia Esparza, M.A. (2022). The Neurotoxic Effect of Ochratoxin-A on the Hippocampal Neurogenic Niche of Adult Mouse Brain. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14090624"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-019-00370-y","article-title":"Ochratoxin A induces global DNA hypomethylation and oxidative stress in neuronal cells in vitro","volume":"36","author":"Babayan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2007.01.033","article-title":"Mitochondria, metabolic disturbances, oxidative stress and the kynurenine system, with focus on neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"257","author":"Sas","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4886(87)90071-9","article-title":"Developmental abnormalities of mouse cerebellum induced by intracisternal injection of ochratoxin A in neonatal period","volume":"98","author":"Fukui","year":"1987","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behrens, M., H\u00fcwel, S., Galla, H.-J., and Humpf, H.-U. (2021). Efflux at the Blood-Brain Barrier Reduces the Cerebral Exposure to Ochratoxin A, Ochratoxin \u03b1, Citrinin and Dihydrocitrinone. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13050327"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9967334","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9967334","article-title":"Food-Origin Mycotoxin-Induced Neurotoxicity: Intend to Break the Rules of Neuroglia Cells","volume":"2021","author":"Pei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"607","article-title":"Mycotoxins in food: Legislation and thresholds","volume":"65","author":"Napoli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ig. E Sanita Pubblica"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhat, P.V., Pandareesh, M., Khanum, F., and Tamatam, A. (2016). Cytotoxic Effects of Ochratoxin A in Neuro-2a Cells: Role of Oxidative Stress Evidenced by N-acetylcysteine. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.01142"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2009.04.013","article-title":"Proteome response to ochratoxin A-induced apoptotic cell death in mouse hippocampal HT22 cells","volume":"30","author":"Yoon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfm093","article-title":"Adult hippocampal neural stem\/progenitor cells in vitro are vulnerable to the mycotoxin ochratoxin-A","volume":"98","author":"Sava","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1002\/tera.1420090112","article-title":"Teratogenic effects of ochratoxin A in mice","volume":"9","author":"Hayes","year":"1974","journal-title":"Teratology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2005.07.004","article-title":"Acute neurotoxic effects of the fungal metabolite ochratoxin-A","volume":"27","author":"Sava","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2006.06.006","article-title":"Can low level exposure to ochratoxin-A cause parkinsonism?","volume":"249","author":"Sava","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1080\/00984100050194126","article-title":"Effects of ochratoxin A on cytotoxicity and cell differentiation in cultured rat embryonic cells","volume":"61","author":"Hong","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrb.20021","article-title":"Effect in rats of simultaneous prenatal exposure to ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1. I. Maternal toxicity and fetal malformations","volume":"71","author":"Wangikar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res. B. Dev. Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44673","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-08991-y","article-title":"Ochratoxin A-induced genotoxic and epigenetic mechanisms lead to Alzheimer disease: Its modulation with strategies","volume":"27","author":"Niaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinthera.2018.05.004","article-title":"Effects of Mycotoxins on Neuropsychiatric Symptoms and Immune Processes","volume":"40","author":"Ratnaseelan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Ther."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2019.05.021","article-title":"Ochratoxin A exerts neurotoxicity in human astrocytes through mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and intracellular calcium overload","volume":"313","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2021.112164","article-title":"Oral subchronic exposure to the mycotoxin ochratoxin A induces key pathological features of Parkinson\u2019s disease in mice six months after the end of the treatment","volume":"152","author":"Izco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2018.04.003","article-title":"Restorative effect of l-Dopa treatment against Ochratoxin A induced neurotoxicity","volume":"118","author":"Bhat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1080\/1028415X.2017.1357793","article-title":"Role of mycotoxins in the pathobiology of autism: A first evidence","volume":"22","author":"Brera","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1179\/1476830515Z.000000000186","article-title":"Ochratoxin A as possible factor trigging autism and its male prevalence via epigenetic mechanism","volume":"19","author":"Mezzelani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1742","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins5101742","article-title":"Toxicity of ochratoxin a and its modulation by antioxidants: A review","volume":"5","author":"Sorrenti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(01)00507-X","article-title":"Oxidative damage and stress response from ochratoxin a exposure in rats","volume":"30","author":"Gautier","year":"2001","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1021\/tx049650x","article-title":"Ochratoxin a causes DNA damage and cytogenetic effects but no DNA adducts in rats","volume":"18","author":"Mally","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1093\/mutage\/gel049","article-title":"Oxidative DNA damage induced by Ochratoxin A in the HK-2 human kidney cell line: Evidence of the relationship with cytotoxicity","volume":"22","author":"Arbillaga","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mutagenesis"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"645361","article-title":"Evidence for a role of oxidative stress in the carcinogenicity of ochratoxin a","volume":"2011","author":"Ehrlich","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.3256","article-title":"Mitochondrial oxidative stress and dysfunction in arsenic neurotoxicity: A review","volume":"36","author":"Prakash","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2024.10.004","article-title":"Oxidative stress and inflammation in the pathogenesis of neurological disorders: Mechanisms and implications","volume":"15","author":"Dash","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.2174\/157015909787602823","article-title":"Oxidative stress and neurodegenerative diseases: A review of upstream and downstream antioxidant therapeutic options","volume":"7","author":"Uttara","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00044.2005","article-title":"The NOX family of ROS-generating NADPH oxidases: Physiology and pathophysiology","volume":"87","author":"Bedard","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2005.7.395","article-title":"Redox regulation of NF-kappaB activation: Distinct redox regulation between the cytoplasm and the nucleus","volume":"7","author":"Kabe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2014.10.006","article-title":"Xanthine oxidoreductase in atherosclerosis pathogenesis: Not only oxidative stress","volume":"237","author":"Battelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428010","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/428010","article-title":"Mechanism of oxidative stress in neurodegeneration","volume":"2012","author":"Gandhi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mito.2017.11.007","article-title":"The essential role of mitochondrial dynamics in antiviral immunity","volume":"41","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mitochondrion"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-014-8893-4","article-title":"The Impact of Mitochondrial Fusion and Fission Modulation in Sporadic Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"52","author":"Santos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2008.08.020","article-title":"Different apoptotic pathways induced by zearalenone, T-2 toxin and ochratoxin A in human hepatoma cells","volume":"254","author":"Bouaziz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0300-483X(85)90046-0","article-title":"Effect of ochratoxin A on rat liver mitochondrial respiration and oxidative phosphorylation","volume":"36","author":"Wei","year":"1985","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-024-03032-w","article-title":"Ochratoxin A induces mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), leading to retinal damage in mice","volume":"44","author":"Fu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4878","DOI":"10.1080\/21655979.2021.1954742","article-title":"Resveratrol acts via the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway to protect retinal ganglion cells from apoptosis induced by hydrogen peroxide","volume":"12","author":"Ye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioengineered"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2024.153738","article-title":"Ochratoxin A stimulates release of IL-1\u03b2, IL\u201318 and CXCL8 from cultured human microglia","volume":"502","author":"Tsilioni","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0242-x","article-title":"Microglia in neurodegeneration","volume":"21","author":"Hickman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1637","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.23961","article-title":"How microglia sense and regulate neuronal activity","volume":"69","author":"Umpierre","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1179\/016164105X49463a","article-title":"Role of microglia in the central nervous system\u2019s immune response","volume":"27","author":"Streit","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurol. Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-022-01207-5","article-title":"Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation in Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Self-Sustained Loop","volume":"22","author":"Arena","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1177\/0960327107074589","article-title":"Neurotoxicant-induced inflammatory response in three-dimensional brain cell cultures","volume":"26","author":"Zurich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Exp. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1432.032","article-title":"Defining \u201cneuroinflammation\u201d","volume":"1139","author":"Sriram","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tremblay, M.-\u00c8., Lowery, R.L., and Majewska, A.K. (2010). Microglial interactions with synapses are modulated by visual experience. PLoS Biol., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1000527"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-016-0374-8","article-title":"Microglial CX3CR1 promotes adult neurogenesis by inhibiting Sirt 1\/p65 signaling independent of CX3CL1","volume":"4","author":"Sellner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1110647","article-title":"Resting microglial cells are highly dynamic surveillants of brain parenchyma in vivo","volume":"308","author":"Nimmerjahn","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"831","article-title":"Effects of the naturally occurring food mycotoxin ochratoxin A on brain cells in culture","volume":"18","author":"Sorg","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2005.04.030","article-title":"Unusual astrocyte reactivity caused by the food mycotoxin ochratoxin A in aggregating rat brain cell cultures","volume":"134","author":"Zurich","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007677003387","article-title":"Glial fibrillary acidic protein: GFAP-thirty-one years (1969\u20132000)","volume":"25","author":"Eng","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3639.1994.tb00840.x","article-title":"Structure and transcriptional regulation of the GFAP gene","volume":"4","author":"Brenner","year":"1994","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2007.01.001","article-title":"Immunoassay for glial fibrillary acidic protein: Antigen recognition is affected by its phosphorylation state","volume":"162","author":"Tramontina","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"449","article-title":"A Journey Through Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase and Ochratoxin A Interactions","volume":"60","author":"Rumora","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2014.08.006","article-title":"Differential activation of MAPKs by individual and combined ochratoxin A and citrinin treatments in porcine kidney PK15 cells","volume":"90","author":"Rumora","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.10151","article-title":"Role of p38 and p44\/42 mitogen-activated protein kinases in microglia","volume":"40","author":"Koistinaho","year":"2002","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1515\/bmc-2022-0017","article-title":"Corticosterone potentiates ochratoxin A-induced microglial activation","volume":"13","author":"Chansawhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomol. Concepts"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2024.01.009","article-title":"Involvement of pro-inflammatory mediators and cell cycle disruption in neuronal cells induced by gliotoxin and ochratoxin A after individual and combined exposure","volume":"393","author":"Juan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2014.04.005","article-title":"Repeated exposure to Ochratoxin A generates a neuroinflammatory response, characterized by neurodegenerative M1 microglial phenotype","volume":"44","author":"Antinori","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-009-0601-5","article-title":"Oligodendrocytes: Biology and pathology","volume":"119","author":"Bradl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuhn, S., Gritti, L., Crooks, D., and Dombrowski, Y. (2019). Oligodendrocytes in Development, Myelin Generation and Beyond. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8111424"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kempuraj, D., Dourvetakis, K.D., Cohen, J., Valladares, D.S., Joshi, R.S., Kothuru, S.P., Anderson, T., Chinnappan, B., Cheema, A.K., and Klimas, N.G. (2024). Neurovascular unit, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration markers in brain disorders. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2024.1491952"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2059","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.21325","article-title":"Neuroinflammation and regulation of glial glutamate uptake in neurological disorders","volume":"85","author":"Tilleux","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2010.06.003","article-title":"The food-associated fungal neurotoxin ochratoxin A inhibits the absorption of glutamate by astrocytes through a decrease in cell surface expression of the excitatory amino-acid transporters GLAST and GLT-1","volume":"31","author":"Razafimanjato","year":"2010","journal-title":"NeuroToxicology"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miranda, M., Morici, J.F., Zanoni, M.B., and Bekinschtein, P. (2019). Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor: A Key Molecule for Memory in the Healthy and the Pathological Brain. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2019.00363"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sferra, A., Nicita, F., and Bertini, E. (2020). Microtubule Dysfunction: A Common Feature of Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21197354"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2022.153376","article-title":"In vitro study of ochratoxin A in the expression of genes associated with neuron survival and viability","volume":"483","author":"Sharma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Ascenzo, M., and Colussi, C. (2025). Oxidative Stress and the Central Nervous System. Antioxidants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14010110"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.03.035","article-title":"A cellular perspective on brain energy metabolism and functional imaging","volume":"86","author":"Magistretti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2018.01.008","article-title":"13 reasons why the brain is susceptible to oxidative stress","volume":"15","author":"Cobley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, K.H., Cha, M., and Lee, B.H. (2020). Neuroprotective Effect of Antioxidants in the Brain. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21197152"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grabska-Koby\u0142ecka, I., Szpakowski, P., Kr\u00f3l, A., Ksi\u0105\u017cek-Winiarek, D., Koby\u0142ecki, A., G\u0142\u0105bi\u0144ski, A., and Nowak, D. (2023). Polyphenols and Their Impact on the Prevention of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Development. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15153454"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1002\/iub.2008","article-title":"Vitamin E: Regulatory Redox Interactions","volume":"71","author":"Miyazawa","year":"2019","journal-title":"IUBMB Life"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"da Cunha Germano, B.C., de Morais, L.C.C., Idalina Neta, F., Fernandes, A.C.L., Pinheiro, F.I., do Rego, A.C.M., Ara\u00fajo Filho, I., de Azevedo, E.P., de Paiva Cavalcanti, J.R.L., and Guzen, F.P. (2023). Vitamin E and Its Molecular Effects in Experimental Models of Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241311191"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2073","DOI":"10.1345\/aph.1E495","article-title":"Vitamin C and vitamin E for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"39","author":"Boothby","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.3109\/10409231003627991","article-title":"Prolyl 4-hydroxylase","volume":"45","author":"Gorres","year":"2010","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1248\/yakushi.13-00158","article-title":"An alternative medical approach for the neuroprotective therapy to slow the progression of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"133","author":"Muroyama","year":"2013","journal-title":"Yakugaku Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, H.W., Park, C.G., Park, M., Lee, S.H., Park, H.R., Lim, J., Paek, S.H., and Choy, Y.B. (2020). Intrastriatal administration of coenzyme Q10 enhances neuroprotection in a Parkinson\u2019s disease rat model. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-66493-w"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korczowska-\u0141\u0105cka, I., S\u0142owikowski, B., Piekut, T., Hur\u0142a, M., Banaszek, N., Szymanowicz, O., Jagodzi\u0144ski, P.P., Kozubski, W., Permoda-Pachuta, A., and Dorszewska, J. (2023). Disorders of Endogenous and Exogenous Antioxidants in Neurological Diseases. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12101811"}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/17\/6\/264\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:39:20Z","timestamp":1760031560000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/17\/6\/264"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,23]]},"references-count":141,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins17060264"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins17060264","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,23]]}}}